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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 341
 342    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 343        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 348        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 349        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 350        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 351        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 352    }
 353
 354    STAR_MAPPING = {
 355        "except": "EXCEPT",
 356        "replace": "REPLACE",
 357    }
 358
 359    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 360        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 361        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 362        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 363        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 364        "DAYS": "DAY",
 365        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 366        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 367        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 368        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 369    }
 370
 371    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 372        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 373        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 374        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 375        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 376        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 377            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 378            if e.args.get("windows")
 379            else ""
 380        ),
 381    }
 382
 383    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 384
 385    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 386
 387    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 388    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 389
 390    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 391        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 392        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 396        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 398        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 403        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 404        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 412        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 413        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 415        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 416        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 418        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 420        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 426        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 427        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 430        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 432        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 435        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 438        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 451        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 452        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467    }
 468
 469    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 470    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 471
 472    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 473    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 474        exp.Create,
 475        exp.Delete,
 476        exp.Drop,
 477        exp.From,
 478        exp.Insert,
 479        exp.Join,
 480        exp.Select,
 481        exp.Union,
 482        exp.Update,
 483        exp.Where,
 484        exp.With,
 485    )
 486
 487    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 488    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 489        exp.Binary,
 490        exp.Union,
 491    )
 492
 493    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 494    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 495        exp.Column,
 496        exp.Literal,
 497        exp.Neg,
 498        exp.Paren,
 499    )
 500
 501    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 502        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 503        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 504        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 505        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 506    }
 507
 508    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 509    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 510
 511    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 512
 513    __slots__ = (
 514        "pretty",
 515        "identify",
 516        "normalize",
 517        "pad",
 518        "_indent",
 519        "normalize_functions",
 520        "unsupported_level",
 521        "max_unsupported",
 522        "leading_comma",
 523        "max_text_width",
 524        "comments",
 525        "dialect",
 526        "unsupported_messages",
 527        "_escaped_quote_end",
 528        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 529    )
 530
 531    def __init__(
 532        self,
 533        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 534        identify: str | bool = False,
 535        normalize: bool = False,
 536        pad: int = 2,
 537        indent: int = 2,
 538        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 539        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 540        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 541        leading_comma: bool = False,
 542        max_text_width: int = 80,
 543        comments: bool = True,
 544        dialect: DialectType = None,
 545    ):
 546        import sqlglot
 547        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 548
 549        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 550        self.identify = identify
 551        self.normalize = normalize
 552        self.pad = pad
 553        self._indent = indent
 554        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 555        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 556        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 557        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 558        self.comments = comments
 559        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 560
 561        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 562        self.normalize_functions = (
 563            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 564        )
 565
 566        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 567        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 568            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 569        )
 570        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 571            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 572        )
 573
 574    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 575        """
 576        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 577
 578        Args:
 579            expression: The syntax tree.
 580            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 581                it is safer to copy.
 582
 583        Returns:
 584            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 585        """
 586        if copy:
 587            expression = expression.copy()
 588
 589        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 590
 591        self.unsupported_messages = []
 592        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 593
 594        if self.pretty:
 595            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 596
 597        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 598            return sql
 599
 600        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 601            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 602                logger.warning(msg)
 603        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 604            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 605
 606        return sql
 607
 608    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 609        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 610        if (
 611            not expression.parent
 612            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 613            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 614        ):
 615            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 616
 617            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 618
 619        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 620            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 621
 622            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 623
 624        return expression
 625
 626    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 627        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 628            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 629        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 630
 631    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 632        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 633
 634    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 635        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 636
 637    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 638        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 639        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 640        return comment
 641
 642    def maybe_comment(
 643        self,
 644        sql: str,
 645        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 646        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 647    ) -> str:
 648        comments = (
 649            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 650            if self.comments
 651            else None
 652        )
 653
 654        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 655            return sql
 656
 657        comments_sql = " ".join(
 658            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 659        )
 660
 661        if not comments_sql:
 662            return sql
 663
 664        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 665            return (
 666                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 667                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 668                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 669            )
 670
 671        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 672
 673    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 674        this_sql = self.indent(
 675            (
 676                self.sql(expression)
 677                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 678                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 679            ),
 680            level=1,
 681            pad=0,
 682        )
 683        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 684
 685    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 686        original = self.identify
 687        self.identify = False
 688        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 689        self.identify = original
 690        return result
 691
 692    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 693        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 694            return name.upper()
 695        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 696            return name.lower()
 697        return name
 698
 699    def indent(
 700        self,
 701        sql: str,
 702        level: int = 0,
 703        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 704        skip_first: bool = False,
 705        skip_last: bool = False,
 706    ) -> str:
 707        if not self.pretty:
 708            return sql
 709
 710        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 711        lines = sql.split("\n")
 712
 713        return "\n".join(
 714            (
 715                line
 716                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 717                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 718            )
 719            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 720        )
 721
 722    def sql(
 723        self,
 724        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 725        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 726        comment: bool = True,
 727    ) -> str:
 728        if not expression:
 729            return ""
 730
 731        if isinstance(expression, str):
 732            return expression
 733
 734        if key:
 735            value = expression.args.get(key)
 736            if value:
 737                return self.sql(value)
 738            return ""
 739
 740        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 741
 742        if callable(transform):
 743            sql = transform(self, expression)
 744        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 745            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 746
 747            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 748                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 749            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 750                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 751            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 752                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 753            else:
 754                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 755        else:
 756            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 757
 758        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 759
 760    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 761        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 762        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 763        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 764
 765    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 766        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 767        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 768        options = expression.args.get("options")
 769        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 770        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 771        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 772        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 773        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 774
 775    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 776        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 777            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 778        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 779        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 780
 781    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 782        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 783
 784        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 785            join_mark = ""
 786            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 787
 788        column = ".".join(
 789            self.sql(part)
 790            for part in (
 791                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 792                expression.args.get("db"),
 793                expression.args.get("table"),
 794                expression.args.get("this"),
 795            )
 796            if part
 797        )
 798
 799        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 800
 801    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 803        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 804        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 805        return f"{position}{this}"
 806
 807    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 808        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 809        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 810        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 811        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 812        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 813        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 814        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 815        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 816
 817        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 818            kind = ""
 819
 820        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 821
 822    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 825        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 826
 827    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 830            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 831        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 832            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 833        else:
 834            persisted = ""
 835        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 836
 837    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 838        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 839
 840    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 841        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 842            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 843        else:
 844            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845
 846        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 847
 848    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 849        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 850    ) -> str:
 851        this = ""
 852        if expression.this is not None:
 853            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 854            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 855
 856        start = expression.args.get("start")
 857        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 858        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 859        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 860        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 861        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 862        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 863        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 864        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 865        cycle_sql = ""
 866
 867        if cycle is not None:
 868            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 869            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 870
 871        sequence_opts = ""
 872        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 873            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 874            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 875
 876        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 877        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 878
 879        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 880
 881    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 882        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 883    ) -> str:
 884        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 885        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 886        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 887
 888    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 889        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 890    ) -> str:
 891        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 892
 893    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 894        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 895
 896    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 897        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 898
 899    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 900        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 901        if desc is not None:
 902            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 903        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 904
 905    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 907        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 908        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 909        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 910        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 911        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 912        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 913
 914    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 915        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 916
 917    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 918        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 919        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 920        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 921
 922        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 923
 924        properties_sql = ""
 925        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 926            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 927        ):
 928            properties_sql = self.sql(
 929                exp.Properties(
 930                    expressions=[
 931                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 932                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 933                    ]
 934                )
 935            )
 936
 937        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 938        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 939
 940        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 941        if expression_sql:
 942            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 943
 944            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 945                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 946                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 947                        exp.Properties(
 948                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 949                        ),
 950                        wrapped=False,
 951                    )
 952                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 953                else:
 954                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 955
 956        postindex_props_sql = ""
 957        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 958            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 959                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 960                wrapped=False,
 961                prefix=" ",
 962            )
 963
 964        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 965        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 966        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 967
 968        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 969        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 970
 971        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 972        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 973            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 974                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 975                sep=" ",
 976                prefix=" ",
 977                wrapped=False,
 978            )
 979
 980        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 981
 982        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 983        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 984            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 985                exp.Properties(
 986                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 987                ),
 988                sep=" ",
 989                prefix=" ",
 990                wrapped=False,
 991            )
 992
 993        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 994        no_schema_binding = (
 995            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 996        )
 997
 998        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 999        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1000
1001        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1002        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1003
1004    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1005        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1006        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1007        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1008        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1009        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1010        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1011        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1012        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1013        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1014        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1015
1016        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1017        if cache is None:
1018            cache_str = ""
1019        elif cache is True:
1020            cache_str = " CACHE"
1021        else:
1022            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1023
1024        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1025        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1026
1027        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1028
1029    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1032        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1033        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1034
1035    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1036        style = expression.args.get("style")
1037        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1038        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1039
1040    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1041        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1042        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1043
1044    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1045        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1046        if with_:
1047            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1048        return sql
1049
1050    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1051        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1052        recursive = (
1053            "RECURSIVE "
1054            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1055            else ""
1056        )
1057
1058        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1059
1060    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1061        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1062
1063        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1064        if materialized is False:
1065            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1066        elif materialized:
1067            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1068
1069        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1070
1071    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1072        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1073        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1074        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1075
1076        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1077            columns = ""
1078            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1079
1080        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1081            alias = "_t"
1082
1083        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1084
1085    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1088            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1089        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1090
1091    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1094            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1095        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1096
1097    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1099        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1100            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1101        return this
1102
1103    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1105        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1106
1107        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1108            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1109            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1110
1111        if escape:
1112            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1113        else:
1114            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1115
1116        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1117        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1118
1119    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1120        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1121        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1122
1123    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1125        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1126        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1127        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1128
1129    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1130        type_value = expression.this
1131
1132        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1133            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1134        else:
1135            type_sql = (
1136                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1137                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1138                else type_value
1139            )
1140
1141        nested = ""
1142        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1143        values = ""
1144
1145        if interior:
1146            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1147                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1148                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1149                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1150                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1151                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1152            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1153                nested = f" {interior}"
1154            else:
1155                nested = f"({interior})"
1156
1157        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1158        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1159            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1160            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1161        ):
1162            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1163
1164        return type_sql
1165
1166    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1167        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1168        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1169        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1170        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1171
1172    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1175        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1176        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1177        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1178        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1179        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1180        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1181        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1182        if self.RETURNING_END:
1183            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1184        else:
1185            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1186        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1187
1188    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1190        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1191        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1192        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1193        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1194        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1195        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1196        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1197        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1198        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1199        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1200
1201    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1202        return self.set_operations(expression)
1203
1204    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1205        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1206
1207    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1208        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1209        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1210        count = expression.args.get("count")
1211        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1212        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1213            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1214        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1215        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1216
1217    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1218        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1219            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1220            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1221            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1222
1223        agg = expression.this
1224        agg_arg = agg.this
1225        cond = expression.expression.this
1226        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1227        return self.sql(agg)
1228
1229    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1230        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1231            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1232            return ""
1233
1234        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1235
1236    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1237        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1238        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1239        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1240        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1241        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1242        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1243        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1244        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1245        if include:
1246            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1247        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1248        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1249        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1250        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1251
1252        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1253
1254    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1255        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1256        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1257        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1258        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1260        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1261        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1262
1263        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1264
1265        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1266        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1267
1268    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1269        text = expression.name
1270        lower = text.lower()
1271        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1272        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1273        if (
1274            expression.quoted
1275            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1276            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1277            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1278        ):
1279            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1280        return text
1281
1282    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1283        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1284        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1285        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1286        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1287        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1288
1289    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1290        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1291        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1292
1293    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1294        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1295
1296    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1297        root_properties = []
1298        with_properties = []
1299
1300        for p in expression.expressions:
1301            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1302            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1303                with_properties.append(p)
1304            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1305                root_properties.append(p)
1306
1307        return self.root_properties(
1308            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1309        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1310
1311    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1312        if properties.expressions:
1313            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1314        return ""
1315
1316    def properties(
1317        self,
1318        properties: exp.Properties,
1319        prefix: str = "",
1320        sep: str = ", ",
1321        suffix: str = "",
1322        wrapped: bool = True,
1323    ) -> str:
1324        if properties.expressions:
1325            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1326            if expressions:
1327                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1328                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1329        return ""
1330
1331    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1332        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1333
1334    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1335        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1336        for p in properties.expressions:
1337            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1338            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1339                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1340            else:
1341                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1342
1343        return properties_locs
1344
1345    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1346        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1347            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1349
1350    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1351        property_cls = expression.__class__
1352        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1353            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1354
1355        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1356        if not property_name:
1357            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1358
1359        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1360
1361    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1362        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1363            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1364            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1365
1366            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1367            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1368                like = f"({like})"
1369
1370            return like
1371
1372        if expression.expressions:
1373            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1374
1375        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1376        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1377
1378    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1379        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1380        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1381        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1382
1383    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1384        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1385        local = expression.args.get("local")
1386        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1387        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1388        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1389        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1390        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1391
1392    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1393        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1394        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1395        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1396
1397    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1398        if expression.args.get("default"):
1399            property = "DEFAULT"
1400        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1401            property = "ON"
1402        else:
1403            property = "OFF"
1404        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1405
1406    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1407        if expression.args.get("no"):
1408            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1409        if expression.args.get("default"):
1410            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1411
1412        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1413        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1414
1415    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1416        default = expression.args.get("default")
1417        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1418        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1419        if default or minimum or maximum:
1420            if default:
1421                prop = "DEFAULT"
1422            elif minimum:
1423                prop = "MINIMUM"
1424            else:
1425                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1426            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1427        units = expression.args.get("units")
1428        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1429        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1430
1431    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1432        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1433        always = expression.args.get("always")
1434        default = expression.args.get("default")
1435        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1436        never = expression.args.get("never")
1437
1438        if autotemp is not None:
1439            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1440        elif always:
1441            prop = "ALWAYS"
1442        elif default:
1443            prop = "DEFAULT"
1444        elif manual:
1445            prop = "MANUAL"
1446        elif never:
1447            prop = "NEVER"
1448        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1449
1450    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1451        no = expression.args.get("no")
1452        no = " NO" if no else ""
1453        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1454        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1455        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1456        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1457        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1458
1459    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1460        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1461            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1462        if expression.this:
1463            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1465            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1466
1467        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1468        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1469        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1470
1471    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1473
1474        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1475        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1476            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1477        else:
1478            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1479
1480        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1481
1482    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1483        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1484        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1485        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1486        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1487        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1488        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1489        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1490
1491    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1492        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1493        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1494        statistics_sql = ""
1495        if statistics is not None:
1496            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1497        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1498
1499    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1500        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1501
1502        if expression.this:
1503            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1505
1506            if expression.expression:
1507                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1508                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1509
1510            sql = f"{sql})"
1511
1512        return f"{sql})"
1513
1514    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1515        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1516        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1517
1518        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1519            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1520        else:
1521            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1522
1523        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1524        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1525        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1526        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1527        if is_function:
1528            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1529        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1530
1531        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1532        partition_sql = (
1533            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1534        )
1535        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1536        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1537        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1538        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1539        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1540        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1541        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1542
1543        if self.RETURNING_END:
1544            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1545        else:
1546            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1547
1548        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1549        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1550
1551    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1552        return self.set_operations(expression)
1553
1554    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1555        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1556
1557    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1558        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1559
1560    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1561        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1562        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1564        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1565        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1566
1567    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1568        return expression.name
1569
1570    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1571        return expression.name
1572
1573    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1574        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1575
1576        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1577        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1578
1579        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1580        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1581        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1582
1583        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1584        if expressions:
1585            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1586            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1587
1588        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1589
1590    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1591        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1592
1593    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1594        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1595        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1596        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1597        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1598        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1599        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1600        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1601        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1602        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1603        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1604        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1605        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1606        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1607
1608    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1609        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1610
1611    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1612        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1613        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1614        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1615        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1616
1617    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1620        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1621        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1622
1623    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1624        return ".".join(
1625            self.sql(part)
1626            for part in (
1627                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1628                expression.args.get("db"),
1629                expression.args.get("this"),
1630            )
1631            if part is not None
1632        )
1633
1634    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1635        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1636        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1637        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1638        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1639        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1640        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1641        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1642        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1643        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1644        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1645        joins = self.indent(
1646            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1647        )
1648        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1649
1650        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1651        if file_format:
1652            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1653            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1654            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1655
1656        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1657        if ordinality:
1658            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1659            alias = ""
1660
1661        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1662        if when:
1663            table = f"{table} {when}"
1664
1665        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1666
1667    def tablesample_sql(
1668        self,
1669        expression: exp.TableSample,
1670        sep: str = " AS ",
1671        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1672    ) -> str:
1673        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1674            table = expression.this.copy()
1675            table.set("alias", None)
1676            this = self.sql(table)
1677            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1678        else:
1679            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680            alias = ""
1681
1682        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1683        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1684        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1685        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1686        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1687        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1688        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1689        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1690        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1691
1692        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1693        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1694            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1695
1696        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1697        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1698            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1699
1700        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1701        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1702            expr = f"({expr})"
1703
1704        return (
1705            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1706        )
1707
1708    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1709        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1710
1711        if expression.this:
1712            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1713            if not expressions:
1714                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1715
1716            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1717            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1718            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1719            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1720            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1721
1722        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1723        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1724        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1725        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1726        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1727        if include_nulls is not None:
1728            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1729        else:
1730            nulls = ""
1731        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1732
1733    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1734        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1735        kind = expression.text("kind")
1736        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1737        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1738
1739    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1740        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1741
1742    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1745        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1746        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1747        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1748        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1749        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1750        if self.RETURNING_END:
1751            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1752        else:
1753            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1754        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1755        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1756
1757    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1758        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1759
1760        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1761        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1762            args = self.expressions(expression)
1763            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1764            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1765            values = (
1766                f"({values})"
1767                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1768                else values
1769            )
1770            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1771
1772        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1773        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1774        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1775
1776        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1777
1778        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1779            row = tup.expressions
1780
1781            if i == 0 and column_names:
1782                row = [
1783                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1784                ]
1785
1786            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1787
1788        if self.pretty:
1789            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1790            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1791            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1792            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1793            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1794
1795        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1796        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1797        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1798
1799    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1800        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1801
1802    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1803        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1804        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1805        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1806
1807    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1808        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1809
1810    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1811        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1812        if group_by_all is True:
1813            modifier = " ALL"
1814        elif group_by_all is False:
1815            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1816        else:
1817            modifier = ""
1818
1819        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1820
1821        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1822        grouping_sets = (
1823            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1824        )
1825
1826        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1827        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1828            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1829        else:
1830            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1831            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1832
1833        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1834        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1835            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1836        else:
1837            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1838            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1839
1840        groupings = csv(
1841            grouping_sets,
1842            cube_sql,
1843            rollup_sql,
1844            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1845            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1846        )
1847
1848        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1849            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1850
1851        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1852
1853    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1854        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1855        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1856
1857    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1858        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1859        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1860        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1861        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1862        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1863        return start + connect
1864
1865    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1866        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1867
1868    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1869        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1870            side = None
1871        else:
1872            side = expression.side
1873
1874        op_sql = " ".join(
1875            op
1876            for op in (
1877                expression.method,
1878                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1879                side,
1880                expression.kind,
1881                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1882            )
1883            if op
1884        )
1885        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1886        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1887        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1888        using = expression.args.get("using")
1889
1890        if not on_sql and using:
1891            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1892
1893        this = expression.this
1894        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1895
1896        if on_sql:
1897            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1898            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1899            if using:
1900                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1901            else:
1902                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1903        elif not op_sql:
1904            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1905                return f" {this_sql}"
1906
1907            return f", {this_sql}"
1908
1909        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1910        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1911
1912    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1913        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1914        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1915        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1916
1917    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1918        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1919
1920        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1921        if cross_apply is True:
1922            op = "INNER JOIN "
1923        elif cross_apply is False:
1924            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1925        else:
1926            op = ""
1927
1928        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1929
1930    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932
1933        if expression.args.get("view"):
1934            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1935            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1936            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1937            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1938            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1939            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1940
1941        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1942        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1943        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1944
1945    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947
1948        args = [
1949            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1950            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1951            if e
1952        ]
1953
1954        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1955        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1956        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1957        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1958
1959        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1960
1961    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1963        value = expression.expression
1964        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1966        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1967        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1968
1969    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1970        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1971        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1974        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1975        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1976        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1977        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1978
1979    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1980        expressions = (
1981            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1982        )
1983        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1984        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1985
1986    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1987        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1988
1989    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1990        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1991            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1992            return ""
1993
1994        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1995        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1996        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1997        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1998
1999        if wait is not None:
2000            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2001                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2002            else:
2003                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2004
2005        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2006
2007    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2008        text = expression.this or ""
2009        if expression.is_string:
2010            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2011        return text
2012
2013    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2014        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2015            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2016            text = "".join(
2017                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2018            )
2019
2020        if self.pretty:
2021            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2022
2023        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2024
2025    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2026        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2027        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2028        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2029        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2030        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2031        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2032        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2033        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2034        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2035        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2036        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2037
2038    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2039        return "NULL"
2040
2041    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2042        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2043
2044    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2046        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2047        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2048        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2049        interpolated_values = [
2050            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2051            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2052        ]
2053        interpolate = (
2054            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2055        )
2056        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2057
2058    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2059        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2060        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2061        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2062        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2063        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2064        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2065        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2066
2067    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2068        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2069
2070    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2071        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2072
2073    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2074        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2075
2076    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2077        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2078        asc = not desc
2079
2080        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2081        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2082        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2083        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2084        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2085
2086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2087
2088        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2089        nulls_sort_change = ""
2090        if nulls_first and (
2091            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2092        ):
2093            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2094        elif (
2095            nulls_last
2096            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2097            and not nulls_are_last
2098        ):
2099            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2100
2101        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2102        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2103            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2104            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2105                self.unsupported(
2106                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2107                )
2108                nulls_sort_change = ""
2109            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2110                if expression.this.is_int:
2111                    self.unsupported(
2112                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2113                    )
2114                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2115                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2116                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2117                nulls_sort_change = ""
2118
2119        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2120        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2121
2122        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2123
2124    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2125        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2126        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2127
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129
2130        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2131
2132    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2133        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2134        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2135        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2136        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2137        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2138        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2139        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2140        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2141        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2142        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2143        definition_sqls = [
2144            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2145            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2146        ]
2147        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2148        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2149        body = "".join(
2150            (
2151                partition,
2152                order,
2153                measures,
2154                rows,
2155                after,
2156                pattern,
2157                define,
2158            )
2159        )
2160        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2161        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2162        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2163
2164    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2165        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2166
2167        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2168            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2169        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2170            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2171
2172        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2173        if options:
2174            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2175
2176        return csv(
2177            *sqls,
2178            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2179            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2180            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2181            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2182            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2183            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2184            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2185            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2186            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2187            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2188            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2189            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2190            options,
2191            sep="",
2192        )
2193
2194    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2195        return ""
2196
2197    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2198        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2199    ) -> t.List[str]:
2200        return [
2201            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2202            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2203        ]
2204
2205    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2206        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2207        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2208        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2209
2210    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2211        into = expression.args.get("into")
2212        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2213            into.pop()
2214
2215        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2216        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2217        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2218        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2219
2220        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2221        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2222            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2223            limit.pop()
2224        else:
2225            top = ""
2226
2227        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2228
2229        if kind:
2230            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2231                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2232            else:
2233                if kind == "STRUCT":
2234                    expressions = self.expressions(
2235                        sqls=[
2236                            self.sql(
2237                                exp.Struct(
2238                                    expressions=[
2239                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2240                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2241                                        else e
2242                                        for e in expression.expressions
2243                                    ]
2244                                )
2245                            )
2246                        ]
2247                    )
2248                kind = ""
2249
2250        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2251        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2252        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2253        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2254        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2255            expression,
2256            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2257            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2258            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2259        )
2260
2261        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2262
2263        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2264            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2265                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2266            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2267                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2268            else:
2269                table_kind = ""
2270            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2271
2272        return sql
2273
2274    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2276        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2277        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2278
2279    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2280        if expression.expressions:
2281            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2282        return ""
2283
2284    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2285        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2286        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2287        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2288        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2289        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2290
2291    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2293        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2294
2295    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2297        kind = expression.text("kind")
2298        if kind:
2299            kind = f"{kind}."
2300        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2301
2302    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2303        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2304
2305    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2306        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2307        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2308
2309        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2310        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2311
2312        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2313        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2314
2315    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2316        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2317        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2318
2319    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2320        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2321            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2322            order = expression.args.get("order")
2323
2324            if limit or order:
2325                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2326
2327                if limit:
2328                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2329                if order:
2330                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2331                return self.sql(select)
2332
2333        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2334        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2335
2336        while stack:
2337            node = stack.pop()
2338
2339            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2340                stack.append(node.expression)
2341                stack.append(
2342                    self.maybe_comment(
2343                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2344                        expression=node.this,
2345                        comments=node.comments,
2346                    )
2347                )
2348                stack.append(node.this)
2349            else:
2350                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2351
2352        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2353        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2354        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2355
2356    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2357        return self.set_operations(expression)
2358
2359    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2360        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2361        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2362        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2363        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2364
2365    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2366        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2367
2368        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2369        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2370
2371        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2372            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2373                alias.append("columns", offset)
2374
2375        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2376            columns = alias.columns
2377            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2378        else:
2379            alias = self.sql(alias)
2380
2381        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2382        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2383            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2384        else:
2385            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2386                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2387            elif offset:
2388                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2389            else:
2390                suffix = alias
2391
2392        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2393
2394    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2395        return ""
2396
2397    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2398        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2399        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2400
2401    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2404        order = expression.args.get("order")
2405        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2406        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2407        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2408        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2409
2410        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2411
2412        first = expression.args.get("first")
2413        if first is None:
2414            first = ""
2415        else:
2416            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2417
2418        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2419            return f"{this} {alias}"
2420
2421        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2422        return f"{this} ({args})"
2423
2424    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2425        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2426        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2427
2428    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2429        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2430        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2431        end = (
2432            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2433            or "CURRENT ROW"
2434        )
2435        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2436
2437    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2438        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2439        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2440        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2441
2442    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2445        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2446        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2447
2448    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2449        return apply_index_offset(
2450            expression.this,
2451            expression.expressions,
2452            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2453        )
2454
2455    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2456        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2457        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2458        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2459
2460    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2461        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2462
2463    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2466            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2467                this = self.wrap(this)
2468            return f"ANY{this}"
2469        return f"ANY {this}"
2470
2471    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2472        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2473
2474    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2476        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2477
2478        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2479            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2480            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2481
2482        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2483
2484        if default:
2485            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2486
2487        statements.append("END")
2488
2489        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2490            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2491
2492        return " ".join(statements)
2493
2494    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2496        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2497        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2498
2499    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2500        order = expression.args.get("order")
2501        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2502        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2503
2504    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2505        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2506        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2507        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2508
2509    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2510        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2511
2512        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2513            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2514        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2515            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2516        else:
2517            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2518
2519    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2520        args = expression.expressions
2521        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2522            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2523
2524        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2525            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2526
2527        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2528            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2529
2530        return args
2531
2532    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2533        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2534
2535        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2536        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2537            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2538
2539        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2540
2541    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2542        return self.func(
2543            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2544        )
2545
2546    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2548        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2549
2550    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2551        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2552        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2553        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2554        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2555        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2556        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2557        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2558        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2559
2560    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2561        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2562        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2563        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2564        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2565
2566    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2567        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2568
2569    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2570        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2571        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2572        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2573
2574    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2575        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2576
2577    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2578        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2579        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2580
2581    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2582        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2583            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2584            if not callable(transform):
2585                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2586                return ""
2587
2588            return transform(self, expression)
2589
2590        if isinstance(expression, int):
2591            return str(expression)
2592
2593        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2594            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2595            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2596        else:
2597            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2598            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2599
2600        return escaped
2601
2602    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2603        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2604
2605    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2606        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2607        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2608
2609        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2610        if unique_keys is not None:
2611            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2612        else:
2613            unique_keys = ""
2614
2615        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2616        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2617        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2618        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2619
2620        return self.func(
2621            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2622            *expression.expressions,
2623            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2624        )
2625
2626    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2627        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2628
2629    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2630        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2631        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2632        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2633        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2634        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2635        return self.func(
2636            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2637        )
2638
2639    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2642        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2643        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2644        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2645        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2646        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2647        return self.func(
2648            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2649            this,
2650            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2651        )
2652
2653    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2654        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2655        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2656        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2657
2658        if nested_schema:
2659            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2660
2661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2662        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2663        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2664        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2665
2666    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2667        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2668
2669    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2670        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2671        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2672        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2673        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2674        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2675        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2676        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2677        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2678        return self.func(
2679            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2680        )
2681
2682    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2684        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2685        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2686        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2687        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2688        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2689
2690    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2692        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2693        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2694        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2695        with_ = (
2696            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2697            if expressions
2698            else ""
2699        )
2700        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2701
2702    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2703        query = expression.args.get("query")
2704        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2705        field = expression.args.get("field")
2706        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2707
2708        if query:
2709            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2710        elif unnest:
2711            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2712        elif field:
2713            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2714        else:
2715            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2716
2717        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2718
2719    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2720        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2721
2722    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2723        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2724        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2725            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2726        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2727
2728        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2729            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2730            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2731
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        if this:
2734            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2735            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2736
2737        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2738
2739    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2740        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2741
2742    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2744        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2745        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2746        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2747        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2748        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2749
2750    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2751        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2752
2753    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2754        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2755        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2756
2757    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2758        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2759        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2761        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2762
2763    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2764        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2765
2766    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2767        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2768        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2769        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2770
2771    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2772        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2773        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2774
2775        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2776            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2777        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2778            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2779
2780        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2781
2782    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2783        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2784
2785    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2787        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2788        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2789
2790    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2792        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2793        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2794
2795    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2798        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2799
2800    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2801        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2802
2803    def and_sql(
2804        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2805    ) -> str:
2806        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2807
2808    def or_sql(
2809        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2810    ) -> str:
2811        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2812
2813    def xor_sql(
2814        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2815    ) -> str:
2816        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2817
2818    def connector_sql(
2819        self,
2820        expression: exp.Connector,
2821        op: str,
2822        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2823    ) -> str:
2824        if stack is not None:
2825            if expression.expressions:
2826                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2827            else:
2828                stack.append(expression.right)
2829                if expression.comments:
2830                    for comment in expression.comments:
2831                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2832                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2833            return op
2834
2835        stack = [expression]
2836        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2837        ops = set()
2838
2839        while stack:
2840            node = stack.pop()
2841            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2842                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2843            else:
2844                sql = self.sql(node)
2845                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2846                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2847                else:
2848                    sqls.append(sql)
2849
2850        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2851        return sep.join(sqls)
2852
2853    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2854        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2855
2856    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2857        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2858
2859    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2860        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2861
2862    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2863        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2864
2865    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2866        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2867
2868    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2870
2871    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2872        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2873        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2874        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2875        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2876        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2877        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2878        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2879
2880    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2881        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2882        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2883
2884    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2885        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2886
2887    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2888        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2889            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2890        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2891
2892    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2893        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2894
2895    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2897        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2898        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2899        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2900        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2901        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2902
2903    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2905        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2906        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2907        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2908        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2909        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2910        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2911        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2912        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2913
2914    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2915        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2916        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2917        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2918        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2919
2920        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2921            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2922
2923        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2924
2925    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2926        return "BEGIN"
2927
2928    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2929        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2930        if chain is not None:
2931            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2932
2933        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2934
2935    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2936        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2937        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2938        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2939
2940    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2942
2943        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2944        if dtype:
2945            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2946            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2947            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2948            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2949            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2950
2951        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2952        if default:
2953            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2954
2955        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2956        if comment:
2957            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2958
2959        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2960            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2961
2962        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2963
2964    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2965        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2966            # Remove db from tables
2967            expression = expression.transform(
2968                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2969            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2971        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2972
2973    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2974        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2975        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2977        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2978
2979    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2980        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2981
2982        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2983            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2984        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2985            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2986        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2987            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2988        else:
2989            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2990
2991        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2992        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2993        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2994        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2995        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2996
2997    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2998        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2999            return self.expressions(
3000                expression,
3001                key="actions",
3002                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3003            )
3004        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3005
3006    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3007        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3008        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3009        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3010
3011    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3012        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3013
3014    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3015        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3016
3017        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3018            case = exp.case()
3019            for arg in expression.expressions:
3020                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3021            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3022
3023        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3024
3025        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3026        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3027        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3028
3029    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3030        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3031
3032    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3033        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3034
3035    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3036        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3038        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3039        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3040
3041    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3042        return self.sql(
3043            exp.Cast(
3044                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3045                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3046            )
3047        )
3048
3049    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3050        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3051            return self.func(
3052                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3053            )
3054        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3055
3056    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3057        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3058
3059        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3060            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3061
3062        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3063            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3064                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3065
3066        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3067            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3068                return self.sql(
3069                    exp.cast(
3070                        l / r,
3071                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3072                    )
3073                )
3074
3075        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3076
3077    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3078        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3079
3080    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3081        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3082
3083    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3084        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3085
3086    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3087        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3088
3089    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3090        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3091
3092    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3094
3095    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3097
3098    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3100
3101    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3103
3104    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3106
3107    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3109
3110    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3111        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3112            return self.sql(
3113                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3114            )
3115        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3116
3117    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3118        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3119
3120    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3121        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3122
3123    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3125
3126    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3127        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3128
3129    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3130        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3131
3132    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3133        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3134
3135    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3137
3138    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3140
3141    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3142        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3143
3144    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3146
3147    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3148        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3149
3150    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3151        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3152
3153    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3154        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3155
3156    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3157        this = expression.this
3158        expr = expression.expression
3159
3160        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3161            this, expr = expr, this
3162        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3163            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3164                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3165
3166            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3167
3168        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3169
3170    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3171        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3172        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3174        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3175        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3176
3177    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3178        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3179        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3180
3181    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3182        args = []
3183
3184        for key in expression.arg_types:
3185            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3186
3187            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3188                for value in arg_value:
3189                    args.append(value)
3190            elif arg_value is not None:
3191                args.append(arg_value)
3192
3193        if self.normalize_functions:
3194            name = expression.sql_name()
3195        else:
3196            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3197
3198        return self.func(name, *args)
3199
3200    def func(
3201        self,
3202        name: str,
3203        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3204        prefix: str = "(",
3205        suffix: str = ")",
3206    ) -> str:
3207        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3208
3209    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3210        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3211        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3212            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3213        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3214
3215    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3216        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3217
3218    def format_time(
3219        self,
3220        expression: exp.Expression,
3221        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3222        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3223    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3224        return format_time(
3225            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3226            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3227            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3228        )
3229
3230    def expressions(
3231        self,
3232        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3233        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3234        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3235        flat: bool = False,
3236        indent: bool = True,
3237        skip_first: bool = False,
3238        sep: str = ", ",
3239        prefix: str = "",
3240    ) -> str:
3241        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3242
3243        if not expressions:
3244            return ""
3245
3246        if flat:
3247            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3248
3249        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3250
3251        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3252        if self.pretty:
3253            if self.leading_comma:
3254                pad = " " * len(sep)
3255            else:
3256                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3257
3258        result_sqls = []
3259        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3260            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3261            if not sql:
3262                continue
3263
3264            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3265
3266            if self.pretty:
3267                if self.leading_comma:
3268                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3269                else:
3270                    result_sqls.append(
3271                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3272                    )
3273            else:
3274                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3275
3276        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3277        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3278
3279    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3280        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3281        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3282        if flat:
3283            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3284        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3285
3286    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3287        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3288        if not property_name:
3289            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3290        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3291
3292    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3293        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3294
3295    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3296        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3297
3298    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3300        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3301        expressions = (
3302            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3303        )
3304        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3305
3306    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3308        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3309        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3310
3311    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3312        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3313
3314    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3315        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3316        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3317        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3318        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3319
3320        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3321        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3322            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3323            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3324                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3325        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3326            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3327                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3328            else:
3329                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3330        else:
3331            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3332        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3333
3334    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3335        table = expression.this
3336        table_alias = ""
3337
3338        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3339        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3340            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3341            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3342
3343        this = self.sql(table)
3344        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3345        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3346        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3347
3348        return self.prepend_ctes(
3349            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3350        )
3351
3352    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3353        if expression.args.get("format"):
3354            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3355
3356        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3357
3358    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3359        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3360            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3361            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3362
3363        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3364        if not fmt:
3365            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3366            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3367
3368        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3369
3370    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3371        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3372        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3373        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3374        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3375        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3376
3377    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3379        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3380        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3381        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3382
3383    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3384        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3385
3386    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3387        return ""
3388
3389    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3390        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3391        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3392        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3393        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3394        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3395
3396    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3397        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3398        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3399
3400        if having:
3401            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3402
3403        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3404
3405    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3406        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3407        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3408        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3409        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3410        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3411        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3412        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3413        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3414        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3415        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3416        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3417        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3418        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3419
3420    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3421        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3422        if key_block_size:
3423            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3424
3425        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3426        if using:
3427            return f"USING {using}"
3428
3429        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3430        if parser:
3431            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3432
3433        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3434        if comment:
3435            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3436
3437        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3438        if visible is not None:
3439            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3440
3441        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3442        if engine_attr:
3443            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3444
3445        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3446        if secondary_engine_attr:
3447            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3448
3449        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3450        return ""
3451
3452    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3453        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3454        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3455
3456    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3457        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3458        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3460        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3461        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3462        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3463        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3464        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3465        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3466        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3467        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3468
3469    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3470        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3471            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3472
3473        case = exp.Case().when(
3474            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3475            expression.args["true"],
3476            copy=False,
3477        )
3478        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3479        if else_cond:
3480            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3481
3482        return self.sql(case)
3483
3484    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3486        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3487        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3488        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3489        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3490        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3491
3492    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3493        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3494
3495    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3496        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3497
3498    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3499        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3500        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3501        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3502        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3503        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3504        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3505
3506    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3508        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3509        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3510
3511    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3513        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3514        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3515
3516    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3517        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3518
3519    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3520        arg = expression.this
3521        if not arg.type:
3522            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3523
3524            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3525
3526        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3527            return self.sql(arg)
3528
3529        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3530        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3531
3532    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3533        this = expression.this
3534        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3535            return self.sql(this)
3536
3537        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3538
3539    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3540        this = expression.this
3541        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3542            return self.sql(this)
3543
3544        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3545
3546    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3547        this = expression.this
3548        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3549
3550        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3551            return self.sql(
3552                exp.cast(
3553                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3554                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3555                )
3556            )
3557
3558        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3559            return self.sql(this)
3560
3561        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3562
3563    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3564        return self.sql(
3565            exp.func(
3566                "DATEDIFF",
3567                expression.this,
3568                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3569                "day",
3570            )
3571        )
3572
3573    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3574        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3575            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3576
3577        unit = expression.text("unit")
3578        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3579            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3580
3581        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3582
3583    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3584        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3585
3586        return self.func(
3587            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3588        )
3589
3590    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3591        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3592            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3593            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3594            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3595            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3596
3597        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3598
3599        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3600        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3601            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3602
3603        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3604
3605    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3606        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3607        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3608
3609    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3610        expression.set(
3611            "expressions",
3612            [
3613                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3614                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3615                else e
3616                for e in expression.expressions
3617            ],
3618        )
3619
3620        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3621
3622    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3623        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3624        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3625
3626        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3627
3628    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3629        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3630        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3631
3632        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3633
3634        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3635        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3636
3637        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3638        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3639
3640        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3641        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3642
3643        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3644        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3645
3646        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3647
3648    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3649    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3650    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3651        to = expression.this
3652        value = expression.expression
3653        style = expression.args.get("style")
3654        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3655        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3656
3657        if not to or not value:
3658            return ""
3659
3660        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3661        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3662            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3663
3664        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3665        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3666
3667        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3668        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3669            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3670
3671            style_value = style.name
3672            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3673            if not converted_style:
3674                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3675
3676            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3677
3678            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3679                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3680            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3681                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3682            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3683                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3684            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3685                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3686
3687        if not transformed:
3688            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3689
3690        return self.sql(transformed)
3691
3692    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3693        this = expression.this
3694        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3695            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3696            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3697
3698        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3699            return f".{this}"
3700
3701        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3702        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3703
3704    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3705        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3706        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3707
3708    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3709        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3710            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3711
3712            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3713
3714        return expression
3715
3716    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3717        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3718            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3719            mods = sorted(
3720                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3721                key=lambda x: 0
3722                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3723                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3724            )
3725
3726            if mods:
3727                mod = mods[0]
3728                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3729                this.meta["inline"] = True
3730                mod.this.replace(this)
3731                return self.sql(expression.this)
3732
3733            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3734
3735            if agg_func:
3736                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3737
3738        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 342
 343    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 344        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 348        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 349        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 350        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 351        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 352        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 353    }
 354
 355    STAR_MAPPING = {
 356        "except": "EXCEPT",
 357        "replace": "REPLACE",
 358    }
 359
 360    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 361        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 362        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 363        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 364        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 365        "DAYS": "DAY",
 366        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 367        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 368        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 369        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 370    }
 371
 372    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 373        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 374        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 375        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 376        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 377        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 378            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 379            if e.args.get("windows")
 380            else ""
 381        ),
 382    }
 383
 384    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 385
 386    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 387
 388    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 389    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 390
 391    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 392        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 393        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 397        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 399        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 404        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 412        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 414        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 415        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 416        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 417        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 419        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 427        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 429        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 431        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 433        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 436        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 439        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 452        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 453        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 465        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468    }
 469
 470    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 471    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 472
 473    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 474    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 475        exp.Create,
 476        exp.Delete,
 477        exp.Drop,
 478        exp.From,
 479        exp.Insert,
 480        exp.Join,
 481        exp.Select,
 482        exp.Union,
 483        exp.Update,
 484        exp.Where,
 485        exp.With,
 486    )
 487
 488    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 489    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 490        exp.Binary,
 491        exp.Union,
 492    )
 493
 494    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 495    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 496        exp.Column,
 497        exp.Literal,
 498        exp.Neg,
 499        exp.Paren,
 500    )
 501
 502    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 503        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 504        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 505        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 506        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 507    }
 508
 509    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 510    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 511
 512    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 513
 514    __slots__ = (
 515        "pretty",
 516        "identify",
 517        "normalize",
 518        "pad",
 519        "_indent",
 520        "normalize_functions",
 521        "unsupported_level",
 522        "max_unsupported",
 523        "leading_comma",
 524        "max_text_width",
 525        "comments",
 526        "dialect",
 527        "unsupported_messages",
 528        "_escaped_quote_end",
 529        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 530    )
 531
 532    def __init__(
 533        self,
 534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 535        identify: str | bool = False,
 536        normalize: bool = False,
 537        pad: int = 2,
 538        indent: int = 2,
 539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 542        leading_comma: bool = False,
 543        max_text_width: int = 80,
 544        comments: bool = True,
 545        dialect: DialectType = None,
 546    ):
 547        import sqlglot
 548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 549
 550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 551        self.identify = identify
 552        self.normalize = normalize
 553        self.pad = pad
 554        self._indent = indent
 555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 559        self.comments = comments
 560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 561
 562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 563        self.normalize_functions = (
 564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 565        )
 566
 567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 570        )
 571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 573        )
 574
 575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 576        """
 577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 578
 579        Args:
 580            expression: The syntax tree.
 581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 582                it is safer to copy.
 583
 584        Returns:
 585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 586        """
 587        if copy:
 588            expression = expression.copy()
 589
 590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 591
 592        self.unsupported_messages = []
 593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 594
 595        if self.pretty:
 596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 597
 598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 599            return sql
 600
 601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 603                logger.warning(msg)
 604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 606
 607        return sql
 608
 609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 611        if (
 612            not expression.parent
 613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 615        ):
 616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 617
 618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 619
 620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 622
 623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 624
 625        return expression
 626
 627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 631
 632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 634
 635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 637
 638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 641        return comment
 642
 643    def maybe_comment(
 644        self,
 645        sql: str,
 646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 648    ) -> str:
 649        comments = (
 650            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 651            if self.comments
 652            else None
 653        )
 654
 655        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 656            return sql
 657
 658        comments_sql = " ".join(
 659            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 660        )
 661
 662        if not comments_sql:
 663            return sql
 664
 665        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 666            return (
 667                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 668                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 669                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 670            )
 671
 672        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 673
 674    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 675        this_sql = self.indent(
 676            (
 677                self.sql(expression)
 678                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 679                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 680            ),
 681            level=1,
 682            pad=0,
 683        )
 684        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 685
 686    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 687        original = self.identify
 688        self.identify = False
 689        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 690        self.identify = original
 691        return result
 692
 693    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 694        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 695            return name.upper()
 696        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 697            return name.lower()
 698        return name
 699
 700    def indent(
 701        self,
 702        sql: str,
 703        level: int = 0,
 704        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 705        skip_first: bool = False,
 706        skip_last: bool = False,
 707    ) -> str:
 708        if not self.pretty:
 709            return sql
 710
 711        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 712        lines = sql.split("\n")
 713
 714        return "\n".join(
 715            (
 716                line
 717                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 718                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 719            )
 720            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 721        )
 722
 723    def sql(
 724        self,
 725        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 726        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 727        comment: bool = True,
 728    ) -> str:
 729        if not expression:
 730            return ""
 731
 732        if isinstance(expression, str):
 733            return expression
 734
 735        if key:
 736            value = expression.args.get(key)
 737            if value:
 738                return self.sql(value)
 739            return ""
 740
 741        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 742
 743        if callable(transform):
 744            sql = transform(self, expression)
 745        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 746            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 747
 748            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 749                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 750            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 751                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 752            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 753                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 754            else:
 755                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 756        else:
 757            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 758
 759        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 760
 761    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 762        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 763        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 764        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 765
 766    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 767        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 768        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 769        options = expression.args.get("options")
 770        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 771        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 772        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 773        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 774        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 775
 776    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 777        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 778            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 779        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 780        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 781
 782    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 783        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 784
 785        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 786            join_mark = ""
 787            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 788
 789        column = ".".join(
 790            self.sql(part)
 791            for part in (
 792                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 793                expression.args.get("db"),
 794                expression.args.get("table"),
 795                expression.args.get("this"),
 796            )
 797            if part
 798        )
 799
 800        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 801
 802    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 804        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 805        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 806        return f"{position}{this}"
 807
 808    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 809        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 810        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 811        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 812        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 813        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 814        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 815        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 816        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 817
 818        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 819            kind = ""
 820
 821        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 822
 823    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 826        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 827
 828    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 831            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 832        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 833            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 834        else:
 835            persisted = ""
 836        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 837
 838    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 839        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 840
 841    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 842        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 843            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 844        else:
 845            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 846
 847        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 848
 849    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 850        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 851    ) -> str:
 852        this = ""
 853        if expression.this is not None:
 854            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 855            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 856
 857        start = expression.args.get("start")
 858        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 859        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 860        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 861        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 862        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 863        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 864        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 865        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 866        cycle_sql = ""
 867
 868        if cycle is not None:
 869            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 870            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 871
 872        sequence_opts = ""
 873        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 874            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 875            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 876
 877        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 878        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 879
 880        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 881
 882    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 883        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 884    ) -> str:
 885        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 886        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 887        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 888
 889    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 890        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 891    ) -> str:
 892        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 893
 894    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 895        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 896
 897    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 898        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 899
 900    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 901        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 902        if desc is not None:
 903            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 904        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 905
 906    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 909        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 910        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 911        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 912        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 913        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 914
 915    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 916        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 917
 918    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 919        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 920        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 921        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 922
 923        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 924
 925        properties_sql = ""
 926        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 927            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 928        ):
 929            properties_sql = self.sql(
 930                exp.Properties(
 931                    expressions=[
 932                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 933                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 934                    ]
 935                )
 936            )
 937
 938        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 939        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 940
 941        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 942        if expression_sql:
 943            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 944
 945            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 946                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 947                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 948                        exp.Properties(
 949                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 950                        ),
 951                        wrapped=False,
 952                    )
 953                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 954                else:
 955                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 956
 957        postindex_props_sql = ""
 958        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 959            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 960                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 961                wrapped=False,
 962                prefix=" ",
 963            )
 964
 965        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 966        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 967        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 968
 969        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 970        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 971
 972        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 973        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 974            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 975                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 976                sep=" ",
 977                prefix=" ",
 978                wrapped=False,
 979            )
 980
 981        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 982
 983        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 984        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 985            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 986                exp.Properties(
 987                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 988                ),
 989                sep=" ",
 990                prefix=" ",
 991                wrapped=False,
 992            )
 993
 994        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 995        no_schema_binding = (
 996            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 997        )
 998
 999        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1000        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1001
1002        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1003        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1004
1005    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1006        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1007        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1008        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1009        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1010        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1011        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1012        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1013        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1014        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1015        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1016
1017        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1018        if cache is None:
1019            cache_str = ""
1020        elif cache is True:
1021            cache_str = " CACHE"
1022        else:
1023            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1024
1025        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1026        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1027
1028        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1029
1030    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1032        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1033        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1034        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1035
1036    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1037        style = expression.args.get("style")
1038        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1039        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1040
1041    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1042        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1043        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1044
1045    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1046        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1047        if with_:
1048            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1049        return sql
1050
1051    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1052        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1053        recursive = (
1054            "RECURSIVE "
1055            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1056            else ""
1057        )
1058
1059        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1060
1061    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1062        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1063
1064        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1065        if materialized is False:
1066            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1067        elif materialized:
1068            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1069
1070        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1071
1072    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1073        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1074        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1075        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1076
1077        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1078            columns = ""
1079            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1080
1081        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1082            alias = "_t"
1083
1084        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1085
1086    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1089            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1090        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1091
1092    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1095            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1096        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1097
1098    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1100        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1101            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1102        return this
1103
1104    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1106        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1107
1108        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1109            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1110            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1111
1112        if escape:
1113            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1114        else:
1115            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1116
1117        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1118        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1119
1120    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1121        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1123
1124    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1127        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1128        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1129
1130    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1131        type_value = expression.this
1132
1133        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1134            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1135        else:
1136            type_sql = (
1137                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1138                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1139                else type_value
1140            )
1141
1142        nested = ""
1143        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1144        values = ""
1145
1146        if interior:
1147            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1148                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1149                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1150                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1151                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1152                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1153            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1154                nested = f" {interior}"
1155            else:
1156                nested = f"({interior})"
1157
1158        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1159        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1160            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1161            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1162        ):
1163            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1164
1165        return type_sql
1166
1167    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1168        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1169        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1170        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1171        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1172
1173    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1175        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1176        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1177        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1178        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1179        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1180        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1181        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1182        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1183        if self.RETURNING_END:
1184            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1185        else:
1186            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1187        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1188
1189    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1191        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1192        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1193        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1194        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1195        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1196        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1197        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1198        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1199        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1200        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1201
1202    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1203        return self.set_operations(expression)
1204
1205    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1206        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1207
1208    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1209        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1210        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1211        count = expression.args.get("count")
1212        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1213        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1214            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1215        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1216        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1217
1218    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1219        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1220            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1221            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1222            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1223
1224        agg = expression.this
1225        agg_arg = agg.this
1226        cond = expression.expression.this
1227        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1228        return self.sql(agg)
1229
1230    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1231        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1232            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1233            return ""
1234
1235        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1236
1237    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1238        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1239        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1240        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1241        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1242        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1243        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1244        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1245        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1246        if include:
1247            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1248        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1249        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1250        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1251        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1252
1253        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1254
1255    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1256        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1257        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1258        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1259        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1260        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1261        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1262        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1263
1264        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1265
1266        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1267        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1268
1269    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1270        text = expression.name
1271        lower = text.lower()
1272        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1273        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1274        if (
1275            expression.quoted
1276            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1277            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1278            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1279        ):
1280            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1281        return text
1282
1283    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1284        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1285        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1286        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1287        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1288        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1289
1290    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1291        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1292        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1293
1294    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1295        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1296
1297    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1298        root_properties = []
1299        with_properties = []
1300
1301        for p in expression.expressions:
1302            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1303            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1304                with_properties.append(p)
1305            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1306                root_properties.append(p)
1307
1308        return self.root_properties(
1309            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1310        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1311
1312    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1313        if properties.expressions:
1314            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1315        return ""
1316
1317    def properties(
1318        self,
1319        properties: exp.Properties,
1320        prefix: str = "",
1321        sep: str = ", ",
1322        suffix: str = "",
1323        wrapped: bool = True,
1324    ) -> str:
1325        if properties.expressions:
1326            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1327            if expressions:
1328                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1329                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1330        return ""
1331
1332    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1333        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1334
1335    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1336        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1337        for p in properties.expressions:
1338            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1339            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1340                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1341            else:
1342                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1343
1344        return properties_locs
1345
1346    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1347        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1348            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1349        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1350
1351    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1352        property_cls = expression.__class__
1353        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1354            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1355
1356        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1357        if not property_name:
1358            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1359
1360        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1361
1362    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1363        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1364            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1365            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1366
1367            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1368            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1369                like = f"({like})"
1370
1371            return like
1372
1373        if expression.expressions:
1374            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1375
1376        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1377        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1378
1379    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1380        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1381        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1382        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1383
1384    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1385        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1386        local = expression.args.get("local")
1387        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1388        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1389        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1390        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1391        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1392
1393    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1394        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1395        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1396        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1397
1398    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1399        if expression.args.get("default"):
1400            property = "DEFAULT"
1401        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1402            property = "ON"
1403        else:
1404            property = "OFF"
1405        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1406
1407    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1408        if expression.args.get("no"):
1409            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1410        if expression.args.get("default"):
1411            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1412
1413        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1414        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1415
1416    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1417        default = expression.args.get("default")
1418        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1419        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1420        if default or minimum or maximum:
1421            if default:
1422                prop = "DEFAULT"
1423            elif minimum:
1424                prop = "MINIMUM"
1425            else:
1426                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1427            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1428        units = expression.args.get("units")
1429        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1430        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1431
1432    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1433        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1434        always = expression.args.get("always")
1435        default = expression.args.get("default")
1436        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1437        never = expression.args.get("never")
1438
1439        if autotemp is not None:
1440            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1441        elif always:
1442            prop = "ALWAYS"
1443        elif default:
1444            prop = "DEFAULT"
1445        elif manual:
1446            prop = "MANUAL"
1447        elif never:
1448            prop = "NEVER"
1449        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1450
1451    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1452        no = expression.args.get("no")
1453        no = " NO" if no else ""
1454        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1455        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1456        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1457        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1458        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1459
1460    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1462            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1463        if expression.this:
1464            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1466            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1467
1468        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1469        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1470        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1471
1472    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474
1475        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1476        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1477            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1478        else:
1479            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1480
1481        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1482
1483    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1484        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1485        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1486        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1487        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1488        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1489        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1490        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1491
1492    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1493        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1494        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1495        statistics_sql = ""
1496        if statistics is not None:
1497            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1498        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1499
1500    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1501        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1502
1503        if expression.this:
1504            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1505            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1506
1507            if expression.expression:
1508                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1509                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1510
1511            sql = f"{sql})"
1512
1513        return f"{sql})"
1514
1515    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1516        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1517        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1518
1519        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1520            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1521        else:
1522            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1523
1524        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1525        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1526        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1527        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1528        if is_function:
1529            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1530        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1531
1532        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1533        partition_sql = (
1534            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1535        )
1536        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1537        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1538        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1539        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1540        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1541        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1542        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1543
1544        if self.RETURNING_END:
1545            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1546        else:
1547            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1548
1549        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1550        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1551
1552    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1553        return self.set_operations(expression)
1554
1555    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1556        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1557
1558    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1559        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1560
1561    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1562        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1563        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1565        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1566        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1567
1568    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1569        return expression.name
1570
1571    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1572        return expression.name
1573
1574    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1575        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1576
1577        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1578        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1579
1580        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1581        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1582        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1583
1584        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1585        if expressions:
1586            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1587            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1588
1589        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1590
1591    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1592        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1593
1594    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1595        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1596        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1597        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1598        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1599        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1600        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1601        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1602        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1603        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1604        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1605        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1606        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1607        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1608
1609    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1610        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1611
1612    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1613        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1614        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1615        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1616        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1617
1618    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1620        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1621        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1622        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1623
1624    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1625        return ".".join(
1626            self.sql(part)
1627            for part in (
1628                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1629                expression.args.get("db"),
1630                expression.args.get("this"),
1631            )
1632            if part is not None
1633        )
1634
1635    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1636        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1637        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1638        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1639        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1640        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1641        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1642        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1643        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1644        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1645        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1646        joins = self.indent(
1647            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1648        )
1649        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1650
1651        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1652        if file_format:
1653            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1654            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1655            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1656
1657        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1658        if ordinality:
1659            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1660            alias = ""
1661
1662        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1663        if when:
1664            table = f"{table} {when}"
1665
1666        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1667
1668    def tablesample_sql(
1669        self,
1670        expression: exp.TableSample,
1671        sep: str = " AS ",
1672        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1673    ) -> str:
1674        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1675            table = expression.this.copy()
1676            table.set("alias", None)
1677            this = self.sql(table)
1678            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1679        else:
1680            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681            alias = ""
1682
1683        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1684        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1685        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1686        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1687        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1688        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1689        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1690        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1691        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1692
1693        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1694        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1695            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1696
1697        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1698        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1699            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1700
1701        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1702        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1703            expr = f"({expr})"
1704
1705        return (
1706            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1707        )
1708
1709    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1711
1712        if expression.this:
1713            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714            if not expressions:
1715                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1716
1717            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1718            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1719            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1720            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1721            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1722
1723        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1724        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1725        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1726        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1727        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1728        if include_nulls is not None:
1729            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1730        else:
1731            nulls = ""
1732        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1733
1734    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1735        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1736        kind = expression.text("kind")
1737        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1738        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1739
1740    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1741        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1742
1743    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1745        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1746        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1747        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1748        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1749        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1750        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1751        if self.RETURNING_END:
1752            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1753        else:
1754            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1755        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1756        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1757
1758    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1759        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1760
1761        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1762        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1763            args = self.expressions(expression)
1764            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1765            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1766            values = (
1767                f"({values})"
1768                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1769                else values
1770            )
1771            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1772
1773        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1774        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1775        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1776
1777        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1778
1779        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1780            row = tup.expressions
1781
1782            if i == 0 and column_names:
1783                row = [
1784                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1785                ]
1786
1787            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1788
1789        if self.pretty:
1790            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1791            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1792            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1793            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1794            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1795
1796        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1797        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1798        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1799
1800    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1801        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1802
1803    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1804        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1805        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1806        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1807
1808    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1809        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1810
1811    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1812        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1813        if group_by_all is True:
1814            modifier = " ALL"
1815        elif group_by_all is False:
1816            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1817        else:
1818            modifier = ""
1819
1820        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1821
1822        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1823        grouping_sets = (
1824            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1825        )
1826
1827        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1828        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1829            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1830        else:
1831            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1832            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1833
1834        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1835        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1836            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1837        else:
1838            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1839            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1840
1841        groupings = csv(
1842            grouping_sets,
1843            cube_sql,
1844            rollup_sql,
1845            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1846            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1847        )
1848
1849        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1850            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1851
1852        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1853
1854    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1855        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1856        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1857
1858    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1859        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1860        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1861        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1862        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1863        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1864        return start + connect
1865
1866    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1867        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1868
1869    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1870        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1871            side = None
1872        else:
1873            side = expression.side
1874
1875        op_sql = " ".join(
1876            op
1877            for op in (
1878                expression.method,
1879                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1880                side,
1881                expression.kind,
1882                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1883            )
1884            if op
1885        )
1886        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1887        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1888        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1889        using = expression.args.get("using")
1890
1891        if not on_sql and using:
1892            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1893
1894        this = expression.this
1895        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1896
1897        if on_sql:
1898            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1899            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1900            if using:
1901                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1902            else:
1903                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1904        elif not op_sql:
1905            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1906                return f" {this_sql}"
1907
1908            return f", {this_sql}"
1909
1910        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1911        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1912
1913    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1914        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1915        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1916        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1917
1918    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1919        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1920
1921        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1922        if cross_apply is True:
1923            op = "INNER JOIN "
1924        elif cross_apply is False:
1925            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1926        else:
1927            op = ""
1928
1929        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1930
1931    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933
1934        if expression.args.get("view"):
1935            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1936            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1937            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1938            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1939            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1940            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1941
1942        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1943        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1944        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1945
1946    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948
1949        args = [
1950            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1951            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1952            if e
1953        ]
1954
1955        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1956        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1957        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1958        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1959
1960        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1961
1962    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1964        value = expression.expression
1965        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1966        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1967        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1968        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1969
1970    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1971        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1972        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1974        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1975        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1976        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1977        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1978        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1979
1980    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1981        expressions = (
1982            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1983        )
1984        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1985        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1986
1987    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1988        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1989
1990    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1991        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1992            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1993            return ""
1994
1995        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1998        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1999
2000        if wait is not None:
2001            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2002                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2003            else:
2004                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2005
2006        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2007
2008    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2009        text = expression.this or ""
2010        if expression.is_string:
2011            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2012        return text
2013
2014    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2015        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2016            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2017            text = "".join(
2018                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2019            )
2020
2021        if self.pretty:
2022            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2023
2024        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2025
2026    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2027        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2028        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2029        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2030        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2031        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2032        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2033        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2034        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2035        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2036        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2037        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2038
2039    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2040        return "NULL"
2041
2042    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2043        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2044
2045    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2047        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2048        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2049        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2050        interpolated_values = [
2051            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2052            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2053        ]
2054        interpolate = (
2055            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2056        )
2057        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2058
2059    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2060        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2061        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2062        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2063        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2064        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2065        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2066        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2067
2068    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2069        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2070
2071    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2072        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2073
2074    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2075        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2076
2077    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2078        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2079        asc = not desc
2080
2081        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2082        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2083        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2084        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2085        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2086
2087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2088
2089        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2090        nulls_sort_change = ""
2091        if nulls_first and (
2092            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2093        ):
2094            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2095        elif (
2096            nulls_last
2097            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2098            and not nulls_are_last
2099        ):
2100            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2101
2102        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2103        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2104            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2105            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2106                self.unsupported(
2107                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2108                )
2109                nulls_sort_change = ""
2110            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2111                if expression.this.is_int:
2112                    self.unsupported(
2113                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2114                    )
2115                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2116                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2117                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2118                nulls_sort_change = ""
2119
2120        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2121        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2122
2123        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2124
2125    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2126        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2127        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2128
2129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130
2131        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2132
2133    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2134        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2135        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2136        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2137        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2138        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2139        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2140        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2141        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2142        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2143        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2144        definition_sqls = [
2145            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2146            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2147        ]
2148        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2149        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2150        body = "".join(
2151            (
2152                partition,
2153                order,
2154                measures,
2155                rows,
2156                after,
2157                pattern,
2158                define,
2159            )
2160        )
2161        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2162        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2163        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2164
2165    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2166        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2167
2168        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2169            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2170        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2171            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2172
2173        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2174        if options:
2175            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2176
2177        return csv(
2178            *sqls,
2179            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2180            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2181            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2182            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2183            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2184            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2185            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2186            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2187            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2188            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2189            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2190            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2191            options,
2192            sep="",
2193        )
2194
2195    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2196        return ""
2197
2198    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2199        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2200    ) -> t.List[str]:
2201        return [
2202            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2203            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2204        ]
2205
2206    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2207        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2208        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2209        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2210
2211    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2212        into = expression.args.get("into")
2213        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2214            into.pop()
2215
2216        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2217        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2218        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2219        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2220
2221        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2222        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2223            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2224            limit.pop()
2225        else:
2226            top = ""
2227
2228        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2229
2230        if kind:
2231            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2232                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2233            else:
2234                if kind == "STRUCT":
2235                    expressions = self.expressions(
2236                        sqls=[
2237                            self.sql(
2238                                exp.Struct(
2239                                    expressions=[
2240                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2241                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2242                                        else e
2243                                        for e in expression.expressions
2244                                    ]
2245                                )
2246                            )
2247                        ]
2248                    )
2249                kind = ""
2250
2251        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2252        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2253        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2254        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2255        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2256            expression,
2257            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2258            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2259            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2260        )
2261
2262        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2263
2264        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2265            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2266                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2267            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2268                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2269            else:
2270                table_kind = ""
2271            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2272
2273        return sql
2274
2275    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2278        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2279
2280    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2281        if expression.expressions:
2282            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2283        return ""
2284
2285    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2286        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2287        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2288        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2289        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2290        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2291
2292    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2295
2296    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        kind = expression.text("kind")
2299        if kind:
2300            kind = f"{kind}."
2301        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2302
2303    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2304        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2305
2306    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2307        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2308        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2309
2310        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2311        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2312
2313        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2314        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2315
2316    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2317        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2318        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2319
2320    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2321        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2322            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2323            order = expression.args.get("order")
2324
2325            if limit or order:
2326                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2327
2328                if limit:
2329                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2330                if order:
2331                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2332                return self.sql(select)
2333
2334        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2335        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2336
2337        while stack:
2338            node = stack.pop()
2339
2340            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2341                stack.append(node.expression)
2342                stack.append(
2343                    self.maybe_comment(
2344                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2345                        expression=node.this,
2346                        comments=node.comments,
2347                    )
2348                )
2349                stack.append(node.this)
2350            else:
2351                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2352
2353        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2354        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2356
2357    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2358        return self.set_operations(expression)
2359
2360    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2361        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2362        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2363        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2364        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2365
2366    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2367        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2368
2369        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2370        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2371
2372        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2373            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2374                alias.append("columns", offset)
2375
2376        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2377            columns = alias.columns
2378            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2379        else:
2380            alias = self.sql(alias)
2381
2382        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2383        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2384            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2385        else:
2386            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2387                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2388            elif offset:
2389                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2390            else:
2391                suffix = alias
2392
2393        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2394
2395    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2396        return ""
2397
2398    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2399        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2400        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2401
2402    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2405        order = expression.args.get("order")
2406        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2407        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2408        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2409        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2410
2411        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2412
2413        first = expression.args.get("first")
2414        if first is None:
2415            first = ""
2416        else:
2417            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2418
2419        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2420            return f"{this} {alias}"
2421
2422        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2423        return f"{this} ({args})"
2424
2425    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2426        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2427        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2428
2429    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2430        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2431        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2432        end = (
2433            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2434            or "CURRENT ROW"
2435        )
2436        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2437
2438    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2441        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2442
2443    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2446        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2447        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2448
2449    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2450        return apply_index_offset(
2451            expression.this,
2452            expression.expressions,
2453            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2454        )
2455
2456    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2457        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2458        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2459        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2460
2461    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2462        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2463
2464    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2467            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2468                this = self.wrap(this)
2469            return f"ANY{this}"
2470        return f"ANY {this}"
2471
2472    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2473        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2474
2475    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2478
2479        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2480            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2481            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2482
2483        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2484
2485        if default:
2486            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2487
2488        statements.append("END")
2489
2490        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2491            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2492
2493        return " ".join(statements)
2494
2495    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2497        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2498        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2499
2500    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2501        order = expression.args.get("order")
2502        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2503        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2504
2505    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2507        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2508        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2509
2510    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2511        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2512
2513        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2514            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2515        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2516            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2517        else:
2518            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2519
2520    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2521        args = expression.expressions
2522        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2523            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2524
2525        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2526            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2527
2528        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2529            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2530
2531        return args
2532
2533    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2534        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2535
2536        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2537        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2538            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2539
2540        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2541
2542    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2543        return self.func(
2544            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2545        )
2546
2547    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2549        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2550
2551    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2552        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2553        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2554        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2555        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2556        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2557        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2558        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2559        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2560
2561    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2562        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2563        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2564        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2565        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2566
2567    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2568        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2569
2570    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2571        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2572        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2573        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2574
2575    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2576        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2577
2578    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2579        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2580        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2581
2582    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2583        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2584            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2585            if not callable(transform):
2586                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2587                return ""
2588
2589            return transform(self, expression)
2590
2591        if isinstance(expression, int):
2592            return str(expression)
2593
2594        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2595            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2596            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2597        else:
2598            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2599            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2600
2601        return escaped
2602
2603    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2604        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2605
2606    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2607        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2608        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2609
2610        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2611        if unique_keys is not None:
2612            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2613        else:
2614            unique_keys = ""
2615
2616        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2617        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2618        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2619        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2620
2621        return self.func(
2622            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2623            *expression.expressions,
2624            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2625        )
2626
2627    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2628        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2629
2630    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2631        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2632        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2633        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2634        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2635        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2636        return self.func(
2637            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2638        )
2639
2640    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2643        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2644        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2645        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2646        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2647        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2648        return self.func(
2649            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2650            this,
2651            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2652        )
2653
2654    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2655        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2656        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2657        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2658
2659        if nested_schema:
2660            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2661
2662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2663        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2664        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2665        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2666
2667    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2668        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2669
2670    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2672        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2673        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2674        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2675        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2676        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2677        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2678        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2679        return self.func(
2680            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2681        )
2682
2683    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2686        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2687        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2688        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2689        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2690
2691    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2694        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2695        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2696        with_ = (
2697            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2698            if expressions
2699            else ""
2700        )
2701        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2702
2703    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2704        query = expression.args.get("query")
2705        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2706        field = expression.args.get("field")
2707        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2708
2709        if query:
2710            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2711        elif unnest:
2712            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2713        elif field:
2714            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2715        else:
2716            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2717
2718        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2719
2720    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2721        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2722
2723    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2724        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2725        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2726            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2727        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2728
2729        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2730            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2731            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2732
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        if this:
2735            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2736            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2737
2738        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2739
2740    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2741        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2742
2743    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2745        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2746        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2747        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2748        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2749        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2750
2751    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2752        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2753
2754    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2755        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2756        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2757
2758    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2759        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2760        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2762        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2763
2764    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2765        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2766
2767    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2768        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2769        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2770        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2771
2772    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2773        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2774        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2775
2776        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2777            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2778        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2779            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2780
2781        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2782
2783    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2784        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2785
2786    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2788        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2789        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2790
2791    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2793        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2794        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2795
2796    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2799        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2800
2801    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2802        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2803
2804    def and_sql(
2805        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2806    ) -> str:
2807        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2808
2809    def or_sql(
2810        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2811    ) -> str:
2812        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2813
2814    def xor_sql(
2815        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2816    ) -> str:
2817        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2818
2819    def connector_sql(
2820        self,
2821        expression: exp.Connector,
2822        op: str,
2823        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2824    ) -> str:
2825        if stack is not None:
2826            if expression.expressions:
2827                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2828            else:
2829                stack.append(expression.right)
2830                if expression.comments:
2831                    for comment in expression.comments:
2832                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2833                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2834            return op
2835
2836        stack = [expression]
2837        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2838        ops = set()
2839
2840        while stack:
2841            node = stack.pop()
2842            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2843                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2844            else:
2845                sql = self.sql(node)
2846                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2847                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2848                else:
2849                    sqls.append(sql)
2850
2851        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2852        return sep.join(sqls)
2853
2854    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2855        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2856
2857    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2858        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2859
2860    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2861        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2862
2863    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2864        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2865
2866    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2867        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2868
2869    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2870        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2871
2872    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2873        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2874        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2875        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2876        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2877        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2878        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2879        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2880
2881    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2882        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2883        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2884
2885    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2886        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2887
2888    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2889        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2890            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2891        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2892
2893    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2894        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2895
2896    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2899        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2900        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2901        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2902        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2903
2904    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2907        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2908        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2909        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2910        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2911        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2912        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2913        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2914
2915    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2916        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2917        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2918        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2919        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2920
2921        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2922            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2923
2924        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2925
2926    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2927        return "BEGIN"
2928
2929    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2930        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2931        if chain is not None:
2932            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2933
2934        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2935
2936    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2937        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2938        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2939        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2940
2941    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943
2944        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2945        if dtype:
2946            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2947            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2948            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2949            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2950            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2951
2952        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2953        if default:
2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2955
2956        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2957        if comment:
2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2959
2960        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2961            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2962
2963        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2964
2965    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2966        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2967            # Remove db from tables
2968            expression = expression.transform(
2969                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2970            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2972        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2973
2974    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2975        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2976        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2978        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2979
2980    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2981        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2982
2983        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2984            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2985        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2986            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2987        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2988            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2989        else:
2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2991
2992        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2993        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2994        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2995        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2996        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2997
2998    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2999        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3000            return self.expressions(
3001                expression,
3002                key="actions",
3003                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3004            )
3005        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3006
3007    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3008        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3009        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3010        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3011
3012    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3013        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3014
3015    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3016        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3017
3018        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3019            case = exp.case()
3020            for arg in expression.expressions:
3021                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3022            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3023
3024        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3025
3026        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3027        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3028        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3029
3030    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3031        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3032
3033    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3034        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3035
3036    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3037        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3039        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3040        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3041
3042    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3043        return self.sql(
3044            exp.Cast(
3045                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3046                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3047            )
3048        )
3049
3050    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3051        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3052            return self.func(
3053                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3054            )
3055        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3056
3057    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3058        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3059
3060        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3061            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3062
3063        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3064            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3065                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3066
3067        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3068            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3069                return self.sql(
3070                    exp.cast(
3071                        l / r,
3072                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3073                    )
3074                )
3075
3076        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3077
3078    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3079        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3080
3081    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3083
3084    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3085        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3086
3087    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3088        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3089
3090    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3091        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3092
3093    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3095
3096    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3097        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3098
3099    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3100        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3101
3102    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3103        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3104
3105    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3106        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3107
3108    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3109        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3110
3111    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3112        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3113            return self.sql(
3114                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3115            )
3116        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3117
3118    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3120
3121    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3123
3124    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3126
3127    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3129
3130    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3132
3133    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3135
3136    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3138
3139    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3141
3142    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3144
3145    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3146        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3147
3148    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3149        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3150
3151    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3152        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3153
3154    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3155        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3156
3157    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3158        this = expression.this
3159        expr = expression.expression
3160
3161        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3162            this, expr = expr, this
3163        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3164            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3165                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3166
3167            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3168
3169        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3170
3171    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3172        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3173        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3175        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3176        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3177
3178    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3179        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3180        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3181
3182    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3183        args = []
3184
3185        for key in expression.arg_types:
3186            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3187
3188            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3189                for value in arg_value:
3190                    args.append(value)
3191            elif arg_value is not None:
3192                args.append(arg_value)
3193
3194        if self.normalize_functions:
3195            name = expression.sql_name()
3196        else:
3197            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3198
3199        return self.func(name, *args)
3200
3201    def func(
3202        self,
3203        name: str,
3204        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3205        prefix: str = "(",
3206        suffix: str = ")",
3207    ) -> str:
3208        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3209
3210    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3211        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3212        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3213            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3214        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3215
3216    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3217        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3218
3219    def format_time(
3220        self,
3221        expression: exp.Expression,
3222        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3223        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3224    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3225        return format_time(
3226            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3227            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3228            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3229        )
3230
3231    def expressions(
3232        self,
3233        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3234        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3235        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3236        flat: bool = False,
3237        indent: bool = True,
3238        skip_first: bool = False,
3239        sep: str = ", ",
3240        prefix: str = "",
3241    ) -> str:
3242        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3243
3244        if not expressions:
3245            return ""
3246
3247        if flat:
3248            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3249
3250        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3251
3252        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3253        if self.pretty:
3254            if self.leading_comma:
3255                pad = " " * len(sep)
3256            else:
3257                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3258
3259        result_sqls = []
3260        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3261            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3262            if not sql:
3263                continue
3264
3265            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3266
3267            if self.pretty:
3268                if self.leading_comma:
3269                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3270                else:
3271                    result_sqls.append(
3272                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3273                    )
3274            else:
3275                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3276
3277        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3278        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3279
3280    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3281        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3282        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3283        if flat:
3284            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3285        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3286
3287    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3288        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3289        if not property_name:
3290            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3291        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3292
3293    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3294        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3295
3296    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3297        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3298
3299    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3301        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3302        expressions = (
3303            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3304        )
3305        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3306
3307    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3309        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3310        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3311
3312    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3314
3315    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3316        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3317        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3318        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3319        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3320
3321        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3322        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3323            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3324            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3325                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3326        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3327            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3328                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3329            else:
3330                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3331        else:
3332            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3333        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3334
3335    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3336        table = expression.this
3337        table_alias = ""
3338
3339        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3340        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3341            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3342            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3343
3344        this = self.sql(table)
3345        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3346        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3347        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3348
3349        return self.prepend_ctes(
3350            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3351        )
3352
3353    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3354        if expression.args.get("format"):
3355            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3356
3357        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3358
3359    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3360        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3361            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3362            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3363
3364        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3365        if not fmt:
3366            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3367            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3368
3369        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3370
3371    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3373        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3374        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3375        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3376        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3377
3378    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3380        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3381        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3382        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3383
3384    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3385        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3386
3387    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3388        return ""
3389
3390    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3391        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3392        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3393        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3394        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3395        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3396
3397    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3399        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3400
3401        if having:
3402            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3403
3404        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3405
3406    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3407        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3408        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3409        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3410        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3411        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3412        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3413        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3414        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3415        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3416        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3417        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3418        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3419        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3420
3421    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3422        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3423        if key_block_size:
3424            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3425
3426        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3427        if using:
3428            return f"USING {using}"
3429
3430        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3431        if parser:
3432            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3433
3434        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3435        if comment:
3436            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3437
3438        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3439        if visible is not None:
3440            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3441
3442        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3443        if engine_attr:
3444            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3445
3446        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3447        if secondary_engine_attr:
3448            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3449
3450        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3451        return ""
3452
3453    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3454        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3455        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3456
3457    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3458        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3459        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3461        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3462        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3463        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3464        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3465        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3466        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3467        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3468        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3469
3470    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3471        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3472            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3473
3474        case = exp.Case().when(
3475            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3476            expression.args["true"],
3477            copy=False,
3478        )
3479        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3480        if else_cond:
3481            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3482
3483        return self.sql(case)
3484
3485    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3487        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3488        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3489        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3490        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3491        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3492
3493    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3494        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3495
3496    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3497        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3498
3499    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3500        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3501        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3502        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3503        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3504        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3505        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3506
3507    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3508        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3509        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3510        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3511
3512    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3514        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3515        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3516
3517    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3518        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3519
3520    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3521        arg = expression.this
3522        if not arg.type:
3523            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3524
3525            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3526
3527        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3528            return self.sql(arg)
3529
3530        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3531        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3532
3533    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3534        this = expression.this
3535        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3536            return self.sql(this)
3537
3538        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3539
3540    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3541        this = expression.this
3542        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3543            return self.sql(this)
3544
3545        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3546
3547    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3548        this = expression.this
3549        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3550
3551        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3552            return self.sql(
3553                exp.cast(
3554                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3555                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3556                )
3557            )
3558
3559        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3560            return self.sql(this)
3561
3562        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3563
3564    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3565        return self.sql(
3566            exp.func(
3567                "DATEDIFF",
3568                expression.this,
3569                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3570                "day",
3571            )
3572        )
3573
3574    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3575        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3576            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3577
3578        unit = expression.text("unit")
3579        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3580            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3581
3582        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3583
3584    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3585        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3586
3587        return self.func(
3588            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3589        )
3590
3591    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3592        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3593            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3594            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3595            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3596            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3597
3598        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3599
3600        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3601        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3602            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3603
3604        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3605
3606    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3607        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3608        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3609
3610    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3611        expression.set(
3612            "expressions",
3613            [
3614                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3615                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3616                else e
3617                for e in expression.expressions
3618            ],
3619        )
3620
3621        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3622
3623    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3624        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3625        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3626
3627        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3628
3629    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3630        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3631        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3632
3633        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3634
3635        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3636        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3637
3638        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3639        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3640
3641        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3642        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3643
3644        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3645        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3646
3647        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3648
3649    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3650    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3651    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3652        to = expression.this
3653        value = expression.expression
3654        style = expression.args.get("style")
3655        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3656        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3657
3658        if not to or not value:
3659            return ""
3660
3661        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3662        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3663            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3664
3665        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3666        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3667
3668        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3669        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3670            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3671
3672            style_value = style.name
3673            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3674            if not converted_style:
3675                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3676
3677            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3678
3679            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3680                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3681            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3682                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3683            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3684                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3685            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3686                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3687
3688        if not transformed:
3689            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3690
3691        return self.sql(transformed)
3692
3693    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3694        this = expression.this
3695        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3696            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3697            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3698
3699        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3700            return f".{this}"
3701
3702        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3703        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3704
3705    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3706        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3707        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3708
3709    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3710        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3711            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3712
3713            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3714
3715        return expression
3716
3717    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3718        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3719            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3720            mods = sorted(
3721                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3722                key=lambda x: 0
3723                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3724                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3725            )
3726
3727            if mods:
3728                mod = mods[0]
3729                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3730                this.meta["inline"] = True
3731                mod.this.replace(this)
3732                return self.sql(expression.this)
3733
3734            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3735
3736            if agg_func:
3737                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3738
3739        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
532    def __init__(
533        self,
534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
535        identify: str | bool = False,
536        normalize: bool = False,
537        pad: int = 2,
538        indent: int = 2,
539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
542        leading_comma: bool = False,
543        max_text_width: int = 80,
544        comments: bool = True,
545        dialect: DialectType = None,
546    ):
547        import sqlglot
548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
549
550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
551        self.identify = identify
552        self.normalize = normalize
553        self.pad = pad
554        self._indent = indent
555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
559        self.comments = comments
560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
561
562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
563        self.normalize_functions = (
564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
565        )
566
567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
570        )
571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
573        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
576        """
577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
578
579        Args:
580            expression: The syntax tree.
581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
582                it is safer to copy.
583
584        Returns:
585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
586        """
587        if copy:
588            expression = expression.copy()
589
590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
591
592        self.unsupported_messages = []
593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
594
595        if self.pretty:
596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
597
598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
599            return sql
600
601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
603                logger.warning(msg)
604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
606
607        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
611        if (
612            not expression.parent
613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
615        ):
616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
617
618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
619
620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
622
623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
624
625        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
641        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
643    def maybe_comment(
644        self,
645        sql: str,
646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
648    ) -> str:
649        comments = (
650            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
651            if self.comments
652            else None
653        )
654
655        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
656            return sql
657
658        comments_sql = " ".join(
659            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
660        )
661
662        if not comments_sql:
663            return sql
664
665        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
666            return (
667                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
668                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
669                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
670            )
671
672        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
674    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
675        this_sql = self.indent(
676            (
677                self.sql(expression)
678                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
679                else self.sql(expression, "this")
680            ),
681            level=1,
682            pad=0,
683        )
684        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
686    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
687        original = self.identify
688        self.identify = False
689        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
690        self.identify = original
691        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
693    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
694        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
695            return name.upper()
696        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
697            return name.lower()
698        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
700    def indent(
701        self,
702        sql: str,
703        level: int = 0,
704        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
705        skip_first: bool = False,
706        skip_last: bool = False,
707    ) -> str:
708        if not self.pretty:
709            return sql
710
711        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
712        lines = sql.split("\n")
713
714        return "\n".join(
715            (
716                line
717                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
718                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
719            )
720            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
721        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
723    def sql(
724        self,
725        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
726        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
727        comment: bool = True,
728    ) -> str:
729        if not expression:
730            return ""
731
732        if isinstance(expression, str):
733            return expression
734
735        if key:
736            value = expression.args.get(key)
737            if value:
738                return self.sql(value)
739            return ""
740
741        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
742
743        if callable(transform):
744            sql = transform(self, expression)
745        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
746            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
747
748            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
749                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
750            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
751                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
752            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
753                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
754            else:
755                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
756        else:
757            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
758
759        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
761    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
762        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
763        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
764        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
766    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
767        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
768        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
769        options = expression.args.get("options")
770        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
771        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
772        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
773        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
774        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
776    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
777        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
778            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
779        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
780        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
782    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
783        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
784
785        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
786            join_mark = ""
787            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
788
789        column = ".".join(
790            self.sql(part)
791            for part in (
792                expression.args.get("catalog"),
793                expression.args.get("db"),
794                expression.args.get("table"),
795                expression.args.get("this"),
796            )
797            if part
798        )
799
800        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
802    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
804        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
805        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
806        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
808    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
809        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
810        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
811        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
812        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
813        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
814        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
815        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
816        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
817
818        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
819            kind = ""
820
821        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
823    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
825        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
826        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
828    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
830        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
831            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
832        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
833            persisted = " PERSISTED"
834        else:
835            persisted = ""
836        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
838    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
839        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
841    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
842        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
843            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
844        else:
845            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
846
847        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
849    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
850        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
851    ) -> str:
852        this = ""
853        if expression.this is not None:
854            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
855            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
856
857        start = expression.args.get("start")
858        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
859        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
860        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
861        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
862        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
863        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
864        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
865        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
866        cycle_sql = ""
867
868        if cycle is not None:
869            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
870            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
871
872        sequence_opts = ""
873        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
874            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
875            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
876
877        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
878        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
879
880        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
882    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
883        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
884    ) -> str:
885        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
886        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
887        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
889    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
890        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
891    ) -> str:
892        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
894    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
895        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
897    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
898        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
900    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
901        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
902        if desc is not None:
903            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
904        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
906    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
908        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
909        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
910        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
911        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
912        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
913        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
915    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
916        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 918    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 919        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 920        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 921        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 922
 923        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 924
 925        properties_sql = ""
 926        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 927            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 928        ):
 929            properties_sql = self.sql(
 930                exp.Properties(
 931                    expressions=[
 932                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 933                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 934                    ]
 935                )
 936            )
 937
 938        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 939        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 940
 941        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 942        if expression_sql:
 943            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 944
 945            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 946                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 947                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 948                        exp.Properties(
 949                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 950                        ),
 951                        wrapped=False,
 952                    )
 953                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 954                else:
 955                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 956
 957        postindex_props_sql = ""
 958        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 959            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 960                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 961                wrapped=False,
 962                prefix=" ",
 963            )
 964
 965        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 966        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 967        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 968
 969        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 970        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 971
 972        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 973        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 974            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 975                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 976                sep=" ",
 977                prefix=" ",
 978                wrapped=False,
 979            )
 980
 981        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 982
 983        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 984        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 985            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 986                exp.Properties(
 987                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 988                ),
 989                sep=" ",
 990                prefix=" ",
 991                wrapped=False,
 992            )
 993
 994        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 995        no_schema_binding = (
 996            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 997        )
 998
 999        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1000        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1001
1002        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1003        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1005    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1006        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1007        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1008        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1009        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1010        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1011        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1012        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1013        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1014        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1015        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1016
1017        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1018        if cache is None:
1019            cache_str = ""
1020        elif cache is True:
1021            cache_str = " CACHE"
1022        else:
1023            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1024
1025        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1026        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1027
1028        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1030    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1032        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1033        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1034        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1036    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1037        style = expression.args.get("style")
1038        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1039        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1041    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1042        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1043        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1045    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1046        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1047        if with_:
1048            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1049        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1051    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1052        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1053        recursive = (
1054            "RECURSIVE "
1055            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1056            else ""
1057        )
1058
1059        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1061    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1062        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1063
1064        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1065        if materialized is False:
1066            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1067        elif materialized:
1068            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1069
1070        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1072    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1073        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1074        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1075        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1076
1077        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1078            columns = ""
1079            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1080
1081        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1082            alias = "_t"
1083
1084        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1086    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1089            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1090        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1092    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1095            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1096        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1098    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1100        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1101            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1102        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1104    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1106        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1107
1108        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1109            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1110            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1111
1112        if escape:
1113            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1114        else:
1115            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1116
1117        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1118        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1120    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1121        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1124    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1127        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1128        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1130    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1131        type_value = expression.this
1132
1133        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1134            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1135        else:
1136            type_sql = (
1137                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1138                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1139                else type_value
1140            )
1141
1142        nested = ""
1143        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1144        values = ""
1145
1146        if interior:
1147            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1148                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1149                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1150                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1151                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1152                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1153            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1154                nested = f" {interior}"
1155            else:
1156                nested = f"({interior})"
1157
1158        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1159        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1160            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1161            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1162        ):
1163            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1164
1165        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1167    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1168        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1169        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1170        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1171        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1173    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1175        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1176        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1177        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1178        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1179        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1180        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1181        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1182        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1183        if self.RETURNING_END:
1184            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1185        else:
1186            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1187        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1189    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1191        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1192        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1193        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1194        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1195        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1196        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1197        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1198        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1199        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1200        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1202    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1203        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1205    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1206        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1208    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1209        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1210        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1211        count = expression.args.get("count")
1212        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1213        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1214            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1215        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1216        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1218    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1219        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1220            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1221            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1222            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1223
1224        agg = expression.this
1225        agg_arg = agg.this
1226        cond = expression.expression.this
1227        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1228        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1230    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1231        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1232            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1233            return ""
1234
1235        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1237    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1238        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1239        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1240        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1241        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1242        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1243        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1244        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1245        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1246        if include:
1247            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1248        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1249        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1250        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1251        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1252
1253        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1255    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1256        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1257        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1258        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1259        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1260        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1261        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1262        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1263
1264        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1265
1266        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1267        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1269    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1270        text = expression.name
1271        lower = text.lower()
1272        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1273        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1274        if (
1275            expression.quoted
1276            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1277            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1278            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1279        ):
1280            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1281        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1283    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1284        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1285        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1286        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1287        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1288        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1290    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1291        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1292        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1294    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1295        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1297    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1298        root_properties = []
1299        with_properties = []
1300
1301        for p in expression.expressions:
1302            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1303            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1304                with_properties.append(p)
1305            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1306                root_properties.append(p)
1307
1308        return self.root_properties(
1309            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1310        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1312    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1313        if properties.expressions:
1314            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1315        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1317    def properties(
1318        self,
1319        properties: exp.Properties,
1320        prefix: str = "",
1321        sep: str = ", ",
1322        suffix: str = "",
1323        wrapped: bool = True,
1324    ) -> str:
1325        if properties.expressions:
1326            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1327            if expressions:
1328                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1329                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1330        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1332    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1333        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1335    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1336        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1337        for p in properties.expressions:
1338            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1339            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1340                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1341            else:
1342                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1343
1344        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1346    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1347        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1348            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1349        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1351    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1352        property_cls = expression.__class__
1353        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1354            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1355
1356        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1357        if not property_name:
1358            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1359
1360        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1362    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1363        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1364            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1365            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1366
1367            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1368            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1369                like = f"({like})"
1370
1371            return like
1372
1373        if expression.expressions:
1374            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1375
1376        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1377        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1379    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1380        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1381        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1382        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1384    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1385        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1386        local = expression.args.get("local")
1387        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1388        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1389        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1390        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1391        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1393    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1394        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1395        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1396        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1398    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1399        if expression.args.get("default"):
1400            property = "DEFAULT"
1401        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1402            property = "ON"
1403        else:
1404            property = "OFF"
1405        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1407    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1408        if expression.args.get("no"):
1409            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1410        if expression.args.get("default"):
1411            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1412
1413        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1414        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1416    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1417        default = expression.args.get("default")
1418        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1419        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1420        if default or minimum or maximum:
1421            if default:
1422                prop = "DEFAULT"
1423            elif minimum:
1424                prop = "MINIMUM"
1425            else:
1426                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1427            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1428        units = expression.args.get("units")
1429        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1430        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1432    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1433        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1434        always = expression.args.get("always")
1435        default = expression.args.get("default")
1436        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1437        never = expression.args.get("never")
1438
1439        if autotemp is not None:
1440            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1441        elif always:
1442            prop = "ALWAYS"
1443        elif default:
1444            prop = "DEFAULT"
1445        elif manual:
1446            prop = "MANUAL"
1447        elif never:
1448            prop = "NEVER"
1449        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1451    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1452        no = expression.args.get("no")
1453        no = " NO" if no else ""
1454        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1455        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1456        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1457        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1458        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1460    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1462            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1463        if expression.this:
1464            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1466            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1467
1468        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1469        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1470        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1472    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474
1475        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1476        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1477            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1478        else:
1479            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1480
1481        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1483    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1484        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1485        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1486        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1487        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1488        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1489        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1490        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1492    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1493        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1494        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1495        statistics_sql = ""
1496        if statistics is not None:
1497            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1498        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1500    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1501        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1502
1503        if expression.this:
1504            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1505            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1506
1507            if expression.expression:
1508                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1509                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1510
1511            sql = f"{sql})"
1512
1513        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1515    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1516        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1517        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1518
1519        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1520            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1521        else:
1522            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1523
1524        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1525        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1526        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1527        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1528        if is_function:
1529            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1530        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1531
1532        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1533        partition_sql = (
1534            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1535        )
1536        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1537        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1538        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1539        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1540        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1541        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1542        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1543
1544        if self.RETURNING_END:
1545            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1546        else:
1547            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1548
1549        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1550        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1552    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1553        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1555    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1556        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1558    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1559        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1561    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1562        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1563        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1565        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1566        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1568    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1569        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1571    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1572        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1574    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1575        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1576
1577        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1578        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1579
1580        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1581        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1582        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1583
1584        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1585        if expressions:
1586            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1587            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1588
1589        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1591    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1592        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1594    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1595        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1596        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1597        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1598        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1599        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1600        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1601        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1602        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1603        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1604        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1605        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1606        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1607        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1609    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1610        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1612    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1613        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1614        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1615        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1616        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1618    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1620        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1621        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1622        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1624    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1625        return ".".join(
1626            self.sql(part)
1627            for part in (
1628                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1629                expression.args.get("db"),
1630                expression.args.get("this"),
1631            )
1632            if part is not None
1633        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1635    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1636        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1637        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1638        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1639        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1640        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1641        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1642        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1643        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1644        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1645        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1646        joins = self.indent(
1647            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1648        )
1649        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1650
1651        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1652        if file_format:
1653            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1654            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1655            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1656
1657        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1658        if ordinality:
1659            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1660            alias = ""
1661
1662        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1663        if when:
1664            table = f"{table} {when}"
1665
1666        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1668    def tablesample_sql(
1669        self,
1670        expression: exp.TableSample,
1671        sep: str = " AS ",
1672        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1673    ) -> str:
1674        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1675            table = expression.this.copy()
1676            table.set("alias", None)
1677            this = self.sql(table)
1678            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1679        else:
1680            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681            alias = ""
1682
1683        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1684        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1685        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1686        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1687        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1688        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1689        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1690        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1691        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1692
1693        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1694        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1695            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1696
1697        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1698        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1699            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1700
1701        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1702        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1703            expr = f"({expr})"
1704
1705        return (
1706            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1707        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1709    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1711
1712        if expression.this:
1713            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714            if not expressions:
1715                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1716
1717            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1718            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1719            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1720            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1721            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1722
1723        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1724        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1725        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1726        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1727        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1728        if include_nulls is not None:
1729            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1730        else:
1731            nulls = ""
1732        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1734    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1735        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1736        kind = expression.text("kind")
1737        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1738        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1740    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1741        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1743    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1745        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1746        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1747        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1748        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1749        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1750        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1751        if self.RETURNING_END:
1752            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1753        else:
1754            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1755        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1756        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1758    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1759        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1760
1761        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1762        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1763            args = self.expressions(expression)
1764            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1765            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1766            values = (
1767                f"({values})"
1768                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1769                else values
1770            )
1771            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1772
1773        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1774        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1775        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1776
1777        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1778
1779        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1780            row = tup.expressions
1781
1782            if i == 0 and column_names:
1783                row = [
1784                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1785                ]
1786
1787            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1788
1789        if self.pretty:
1790            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1791            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1792            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1793            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1794            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1795
1796        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1797        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1798        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1800    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1801        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1803    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1804        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1805        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1806        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1808    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1809        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1811    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1812        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1813        if group_by_all is True:
1814            modifier = " ALL"
1815        elif group_by_all is False:
1816            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1817        else:
1818            modifier = ""
1819
1820        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1821
1822        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1823        grouping_sets = (
1824            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1825        )
1826
1827        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1828        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1829            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1830        else:
1831            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1832            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1833
1834        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1835        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1836            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1837        else:
1838            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1839            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1840
1841        groupings = csv(
1842            grouping_sets,
1843            cube_sql,
1844            rollup_sql,
1845            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1846            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1847        )
1848
1849        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1850            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1851
1852        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1854    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1855        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1856        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1858    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1859        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1860        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1861        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1862        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1863        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1864        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1866    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1867        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1869    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1870        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1871            side = None
1872        else:
1873            side = expression.side
1874
1875        op_sql = " ".join(
1876            op
1877            for op in (
1878                expression.method,
1879                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1880                side,
1881                expression.kind,
1882                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1883            )
1884            if op
1885        )
1886        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1887        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1888        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1889        using = expression.args.get("using")
1890
1891        if not on_sql and using:
1892            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1893
1894        this = expression.this
1895        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1896
1897        if on_sql:
1898            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1899            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1900            if using:
1901                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1902            else:
1903                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1904        elif not op_sql:
1905            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1906                return f" {this_sql}"
1907
1908            return f", {this_sql}"
1909
1910        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1911        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1913    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1914        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1915        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1916        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1918    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1919        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1920
1921        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1922        if cross_apply is True:
1923            op = "INNER JOIN "
1924        elif cross_apply is False:
1925            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1926        else:
1927            op = ""
1928
1929        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1931    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933
1934        if expression.args.get("view"):
1935            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1936            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1937            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1938            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1939            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1940            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1941
1942        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1943        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1944        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1946    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948
1949        args = [
1950            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1951            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1952            if e
1953        ]
1954
1955        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1956        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1957        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1958        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1959
1960        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1962    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1964        value = expression.expression
1965        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1966        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1967        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1968        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1970    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1971        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1972        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1974        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1975        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1976        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1977        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1978        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1980    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1981        expressions = (
1982            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1983        )
1984        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1985        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1987    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1988        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1990    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1991        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1992            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1993            return ""
1994
1995        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1998        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1999
2000        if wait is not None:
2001            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2002                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2003            else:
2004                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2005
2006        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2008    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2009        text = expression.this or ""
2010        if expression.is_string:
2011            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2012        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2014    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2015        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2016            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2017            text = "".join(
2018                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2019            )
2020
2021        if self.pretty:
2022            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2023
2024        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2026    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2027        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2028        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2029        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2030        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2031        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2032        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2033        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2034        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2035        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2036        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2037        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2039    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2040        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2042    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2043        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2045    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2047        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2048        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2049        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2050        interpolated_values = [
2051            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2052            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2053        ]
2054        interpolate = (
2055            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2056        )
2057        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2059    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2060        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2061        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2062        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2063        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2064        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2065        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2066        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2068    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2069        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2071    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2072        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2074    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2075        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2077    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2078        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2079        asc = not desc
2080
2081        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2082        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2083        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2084        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2085        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2086
2087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2088
2089        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2090        nulls_sort_change = ""
2091        if nulls_first and (
2092            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2093        ):
2094            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2095        elif (
2096            nulls_last
2097            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2098            and not nulls_are_last
2099        ):
2100            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2101
2102        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2103        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2104            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2105            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2106                self.unsupported(
2107                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2108                )
2109                nulls_sort_change = ""
2110            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2111                if expression.this.is_int:
2112                    self.unsupported(
2113                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2114                    )
2115                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2116                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2117                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2118                nulls_sort_change = ""
2119
2120        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2121        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2122
2123        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2125    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2126        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2127        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2128
2129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130
2131        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2133    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2134        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2135        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2136        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2137        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2138        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2139        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2140        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2141        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2142        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2143        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2144        definition_sqls = [
2145            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2146            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2147        ]
2148        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2149        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2150        body = "".join(
2151            (
2152                partition,
2153                order,
2154                measures,
2155                rows,
2156                after,
2157                pattern,
2158                define,
2159            )
2160        )
2161        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2162        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2163        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2165    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2166        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2167
2168        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2169            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2170        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2171            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2172
2173        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2174        if options:
2175            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2176
2177        return csv(
2178            *sqls,
2179            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2180            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2181            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2182            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2183            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2184            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2185            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2186            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2187            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2188            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2189            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2190            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2191            options,
2192            sep="",
2193        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2195    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2196        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2198    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2199        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2200    ) -> t.List[str]:
2201        return [
2202            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2203            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2204        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2206    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2207        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2208        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2209        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2211    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2212        into = expression.args.get("into")
2213        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2214            into.pop()
2215
2216        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2217        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2218        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2219        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2220
2221        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2222        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2223            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2224            limit.pop()
2225        else:
2226            top = ""
2227
2228        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2229
2230        if kind:
2231            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2232                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2233            else:
2234                if kind == "STRUCT":
2235                    expressions = self.expressions(
2236                        sqls=[
2237                            self.sql(
2238                                exp.Struct(
2239                                    expressions=[
2240                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2241                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2242                                        else e
2243                                        for e in expression.expressions
2244                                    ]
2245                                )
2246                            )
2247                        ]
2248                    )
2249                kind = ""
2250
2251        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2252        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2253        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2254        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2255        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2256            expression,
2257            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2258            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2259            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2260        )
2261
2262        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2263
2264        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2265            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2266                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2267            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2268                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2269            else:
2270                table_kind = ""
2271            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2272
2273        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2275    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2278        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2280    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2281        if expression.expressions:
2282            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2283        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2285    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2286        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2287        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2288        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2289        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2290        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2292    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2296    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        kind = expression.text("kind")
2299        if kind:
2300            kind = f"{kind}."
2301        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2303    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2304        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2306    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2307        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2308        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2309
2310        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2311        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2312
2313        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2314        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2316    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2317        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2318        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2320    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2321        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2322            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2323            order = expression.args.get("order")
2324
2325            if limit or order:
2326                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2327
2328                if limit:
2329                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2330                if order:
2331                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2332                return self.sql(select)
2333
2334        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2335        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2336
2337        while stack:
2338            node = stack.pop()
2339
2340            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2341                stack.append(node.expression)
2342                stack.append(
2343                    self.maybe_comment(
2344                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2345                        expression=node.this,
2346                        comments=node.comments,
2347                    )
2348                )
2349                stack.append(node.this)
2350            else:
2351                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2352
2353        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2354        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2357    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2358        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2360    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2361        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2362        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2363        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2364        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2366    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2367        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2368
2369        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2370        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2371
2372        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2373            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2374                alias.append("columns", offset)
2375
2376        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2377            columns = alias.columns
2378            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2379        else:
2380            alias = self.sql(alias)
2381
2382        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2383        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2384            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2385        else:
2386            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2387                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2388            elif offset:
2389                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2390            else:
2391                suffix = alias
2392
2393        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2395    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2396        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2398    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2399        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2400        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2402    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2405        order = expression.args.get("order")
2406        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2407        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2408        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2409        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2410
2411        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2412
2413        first = expression.args.get("first")
2414        if first is None:
2415            first = ""
2416        else:
2417            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2418
2419        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2420            return f"{this} {alias}"
2421
2422        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2423        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2425    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2426        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2427        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2429    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2430        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2431        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2432        end = (
2433            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2434            or "CURRENT ROW"
2435        )
2436        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2438    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2441        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2443    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2446        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2447        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2449    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2450        return apply_index_offset(
2451            expression.this,
2452            expression.expressions,
2453            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2454        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2456    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2457        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2458        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2459        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2461    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2462        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2464    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2467            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2468                this = self.wrap(this)
2469            return f"ANY{this}"
2470        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2472    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2473        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2475    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2478
2479        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2480            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2481            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2482
2483        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2484
2485        if default:
2486            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2487
2488        statements.append("END")
2489
2490        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2491            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2492
2493        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2495    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2497        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2498        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2500    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2501        order = expression.args.get("order")
2502        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2503        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2505    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2507        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2508        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2510    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2511        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2512
2513        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2514            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2515        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2516            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2517        else:
2518            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2520    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2521        args = expression.expressions
2522        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2523            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2524
2525        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2526            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2527
2528        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2529            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2530
2531        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2533    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2534        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2535
2536        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2537        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2538            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2539
2540        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2542    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2543        return self.func(
2544            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2545        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2547    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2549        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2551    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2552        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2553        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2554        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2555        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2556        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2557        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2558        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2559        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2561    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2562        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2563        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2564        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2565        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2567    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2568        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2570    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2571        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2572        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2573        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2575    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2576        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2578    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2579        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2580        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2582    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2583        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2584            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2585            if not callable(transform):
2586                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2587                return ""
2588
2589            return transform(self, expression)
2590
2591        if isinstance(expression, int):
2592            return str(expression)
2593
2594        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2595            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2596            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2597        else:
2598            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2599            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2600
2601        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2603    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2604        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2606    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2607        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2608        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2609
2610        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2611        if unique_keys is not None:
2612            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2613        else:
2614            unique_keys = ""
2615
2616        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2617        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2618        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2619        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2620
2621        return self.func(
2622            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2623            *expression.expressions,
2624            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2625        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2627    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2628        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2630    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2631        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2632        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2633        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2634        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2635        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2636        return self.func(
2637            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2638        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2640    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2643        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2644        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2645        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2646        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2647        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2648        return self.func(
2649            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2650            this,
2651            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2652        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2654    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2655        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2656        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2657        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2658
2659        if nested_schema:
2660            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2661
2662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2663        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2664        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2665        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2667    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2668        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2670    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2672        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2673        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2674        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2675        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2676        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2677        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2678        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2679        return self.func(
2680            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2681        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2683    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2686        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2687        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2688        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2689        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2691    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2694        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2695        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2696        with_ = (
2697            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2698            if expressions
2699            else ""
2700        )
2701        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2703    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2704        query = expression.args.get("query")
2705        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2706        field = expression.args.get("field")
2707        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2708
2709        if query:
2710            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2711        elif unnest:
2712            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2713        elif field:
2714            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2715        else:
2716            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2717
2718        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2720    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2721        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2723    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2724        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2725        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2726            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2727        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2728
2729        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2730            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2731            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2732
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        if this:
2735            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2736            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2737
2738        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2740    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2741        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2743    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2745        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2746        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2747        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2748        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2749        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2751    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2752        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2754    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2755        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2756        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2758    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2759        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2760        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2762        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2764    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2765        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2767    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2768        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2769        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2770        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2772    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2773        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2774        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2775
2776        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2777            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2778        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2779            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2780
2781        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2783    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2784        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2786    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2788        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2789        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2791    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2793        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2794        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2796    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2799        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2801    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2802        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2804    def and_sql(
2805        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2806    ) -> str:
2807        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2809    def or_sql(
2810        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2811    ) -> str:
2812        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2814    def xor_sql(
2815        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2816    ) -> str:
2817        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2819    def connector_sql(
2820        self,
2821        expression: exp.Connector,
2822        op: str,
2823        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2824    ) -> str:
2825        if stack is not None:
2826            if expression.expressions:
2827                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2828            else:
2829                stack.append(expression.right)
2830                if expression.comments:
2831                    for comment in expression.comments:
2832                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2833                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2834            return op
2835
2836        stack = [expression]
2837        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2838        ops = set()
2839
2840        while stack:
2841            node = stack.pop()
2842            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2843                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2844            else:
2845                sql = self.sql(node)
2846                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2847                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2848                else:
2849                    sqls.append(sql)
2850
2851        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2852        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2854    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2855        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2857    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2858        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2860    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2861        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2863    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2864        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2866    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2867        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2869    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2870        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2872    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2873        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2874        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2875        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2876        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2877        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2878        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2879        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2881    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2882        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2883        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2885    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2886        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2888    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2889        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2890            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2891        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2893    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2894        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2896    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2899        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2900        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2901        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2902        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2904    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2907        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2908        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2909        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2910        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2911        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2912        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2913        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2915    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2916        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2917        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2918        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2919        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2920
2921        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2922            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2923
2924        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2926    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2927        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2929    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2930        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2931        if chain is not None:
2932            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2933
2934        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2936    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2937        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2938        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2939        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2941    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943
2944        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2945        if dtype:
2946            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2947            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2948            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2949            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2950            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2951
2952        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2953        if default:
2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2955
2956        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2957        if comment:
2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2959
2960        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2961            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2962
2963        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2965    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2966        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2967            # Remove db from tables
2968            expression = expression.transform(
2969                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2970            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2972        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2974    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2975        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2976        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2978        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2980    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2981        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2982
2983        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2984            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2985        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2986            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2987        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2988            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2989        else:
2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2991
2992        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2993        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2994        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2995        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2996        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2998    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2999        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3000            return self.expressions(
3001                expression,
3002                key="actions",
3003                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3004            )
3005        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3007    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3008        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3009        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3010        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3012    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3013        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3015    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3016        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3017
3018        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3019            case = exp.case()
3020            for arg in expression.expressions:
3021                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3022            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3023
3024        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3025
3026        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3027        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3028        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3030    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3031        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3033    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3034        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3036    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3037        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3039        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3040        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3042    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3043        return self.sql(
3044            exp.Cast(
3045                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3046                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3047            )
3048        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3050    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3051        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3052            return self.func(
3053                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3054            )
3055        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3057    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3058        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3059
3060        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3061            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3062
3063        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3064            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3065                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3066
3067        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3068            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3069                return self.sql(
3070                    exp.cast(
3071                        l / r,
3072                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3073                    )
3074                )
3075
3076        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3078    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3079        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3081    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3084    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3085        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3087    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3088        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3090    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3091        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3093    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3096    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3097        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3099    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3100        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3102    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3103        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3105    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3106        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3108    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3109        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3111    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3112        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3113            return self.sql(
3114                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3115            )
3116        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3118    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3121    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3124    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3127    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3130    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3133    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3136    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3139    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3142    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3145    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3146        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3148    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3149        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3151    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3152        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3154    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3155        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3157    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3158        this = expression.this
3159        expr = expression.expression
3160
3161        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3162            this, expr = expr, this
3163        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3164            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3165                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3166
3167            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3168
3169        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3171    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3172        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3173        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3175        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3176        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3178    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3179        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3180        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3182    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3183        args = []
3184
3185        for key in expression.arg_types:
3186            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3187
3188            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3189                for value in arg_value:
3190                    args.append(value)
3191            elif arg_value is not None:
3192                args.append(arg_value)
3193
3194        if self.normalize_functions:
3195            name = expression.sql_name()
3196        else:
3197            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3198
3199        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3201    def func(
3202        self,
3203        name: str,
3204        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3205        prefix: str = "(",
3206        suffix: str = ")",
3207    ) -> str:
3208        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3210    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3211        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3212        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3213            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3214        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
3216    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3217        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3219    def format_time(
3220        self,
3221        expression: exp.Expression,
3222        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3223        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3224    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3225        return format_time(
3226            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3227            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3228            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3229        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
3231    def expressions(
3232        self,
3233        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3234        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3235        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3236        flat: bool = False,
3237        indent: bool = True,
3238        skip_first: bool = False,
3239        sep: str = ", ",
3240        prefix: str = "",
3241    ) -> str:
3242        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3243
3244        if not expressions:
3245            return ""
3246
3247        if flat:
3248            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3249
3250        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3251
3252        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3253        if self.pretty:
3254            if self.leading_comma:
3255                pad = " " * len(sep)
3256            else:
3257                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3258
3259        result_sqls = []
3260        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3261            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3262            if not sql:
3263                continue
3264
3265            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3266
3267            if self.pretty:
3268                if self.leading_comma:
3269                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3270                else:
3271                    result_sqls.append(
3272                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3273                    )
3274            else:
3275                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3276
3277        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3278        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3280    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3281        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3282        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3283        if flat:
3284            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3285        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3287    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3288        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3289        if not property_name:
3290            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3291        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3293    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3294        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3296    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3297        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3299    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3301        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3302        expressions = (
3303            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3304        )
3305        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3307    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3309        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3310        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3312    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3315    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3316        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3317        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3318        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3319        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3320
3321        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3322        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3323            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3324            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3325                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3326        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3327            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3328                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3329            else:
3330                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3331        else:
3332            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3333        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3335    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3336        table = expression.this
3337        table_alias = ""
3338
3339        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3340        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3341            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3342            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3343
3344        this = self.sql(table)
3345        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3346        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3347        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3348
3349        return self.prepend_ctes(
3350            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3351        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3353    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3354        if expression.args.get("format"):
3355            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3356
3357        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3359    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3360        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3361            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3362            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3363
3364        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3365        if not fmt:
3366            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3367            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3368
3369        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3371    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3373        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3374        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3375        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3376        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3378    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3380        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3381        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3382        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3384    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3385        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3387    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3388        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3390    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3391        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3392        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3393        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3394        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3395        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3397    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3399        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3400
3401        if having:
3402            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3403
3404        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3406    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3407        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3408        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3409        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3410        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3411        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3412        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3413        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3414        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3415        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3416        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3417        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3418        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3419        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3421    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3422        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3423        if key_block_size:
3424            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3425
3426        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3427        if using:
3428            return f"USING {using}"
3429
3430        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3431        if parser:
3432            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3433
3434        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3435        if comment:
3436            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3437
3438        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3439        if visible is not None:
3440            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3441
3442        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3443        if engine_attr:
3444            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3445
3446        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3447        if secondary_engine_attr:
3448            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3449
3450        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3451        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3453    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3454        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3455        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3457    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3458        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3459        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3461        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3462        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3463        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3464        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3465        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3466        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3467        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3468        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3470    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3471        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3472            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3473
3474        case = exp.Case().when(
3475            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3476            expression.args["true"],
3477            copy=False,
3478        )
3479        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3480        if else_cond:
3481            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3482
3483        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3485    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3487        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3488        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3489        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3490        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3491        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3493    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3494        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3496    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3497        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3499    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3500        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3501        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3502        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3503        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3504        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3505        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3507    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3508        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3509        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3510        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3512    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3514        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3515        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3517    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3518        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3520    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3521        arg = expression.this
3522        if not arg.type:
3523            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3524
3525            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3526
3527        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3528            return self.sql(arg)
3529
3530        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3531        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3533    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3534        this = expression.this
3535        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3536            return self.sql(this)
3537
3538        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3540    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3541        this = expression.this
3542        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3543            return self.sql(this)
3544
3545        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3547    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3548        this = expression.this
3549        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3550
3551        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3552            return self.sql(
3553                exp.cast(
3554                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3555                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3556                )
3557            )
3558
3559        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3560            return self.sql(this)
3561
3562        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3564    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3565        return self.sql(
3566            exp.func(
3567                "DATEDIFF",
3568                expression.this,
3569                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3570                "day",
3571            )
3572        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3574    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3575        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3576            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3577
3578        unit = expression.text("unit")
3579        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3580            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3581
3582        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3584    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3585        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3586
3587        return self.func(
3588            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3589        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3591    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3592        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3593            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3594            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3595            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3596            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3597
3598        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3599
3600        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3601        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3602            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3603
3604        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3606    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3607        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3608        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3610    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3611        expression.set(
3612            "expressions",
3613            [
3614                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3615                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3616                else e
3617                for e in expression.expressions
3618            ],
3619        )
3620
3621        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3623    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3624        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3625        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3626
3627        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3629    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3630        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3631        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3632
3633        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3634
3635        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3636        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3637
3638        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3639        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3640
3641        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3642        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3643
3644        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3645        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3646
3647        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3651    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3652        to = expression.this
3653        value = expression.expression
3654        style = expression.args.get("style")
3655        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3656        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3657
3658        if not to or not value:
3659            return ""
3660
3661        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3662        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3663            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3664
3665        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3666        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3667
3668        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3669        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3670            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3671
3672            style_value = style.name
3673            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3674            if not converted_style:
3675                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3676
3677            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3678
3679            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3680                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3681            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3682                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3683            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3684                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3685            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3686                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3687
3688        if not transformed:
3689            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3690
3691        return self.sql(transformed)